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Chemistry Assistant

Ai-powered chemistry problem solver.

  • Homework Help: Students can use the Chemistry Assistant to help understand and work through chemistry problems in their homework.
  • Teaching Aid: Teachers can use this tool to generate solutions to chemistry problems, aiding in lesson planning and student instruction.
  • Exam Preparation: Use the Chemistry Assistant to prepare for chemistry exams by solving practice problems and getting explanations of chemistry terms and principles.
  • Research Assistance: Researchers can use this tool to help work through chemistry problems in their work.

Yes, the Chemistry Assistant is designed to handle a wide range of chemistry problems, from basic to advanced. However, it's always important to cross-verify the solutions provided by the AI with trusted resources or professionals in the field to ensure accuracy and understanding, especially with more complex problems and principles.

While the Chemistry Assistant is specifically designed for chemistry problems, HyperWrite offers other AI tools for different subjects and needs. You can explore more tools at app.hyperwriteai.com/tools .

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  • CH_{4}+O_{2}\Rightarrow CO_{2}+H_{2}O
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Chemistry Calculators

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Top chemistry calculators

Need to convert between moles, molecular weight and mass? You can do it here with our mole calculator.

Use this grams to moles calculator whenever you want to know the number of moles of a substance with a specific mass.

Determine solution molarity and understand molar concentration with our intuitive Molarity Calculator.

The pH calculator can determine the pH from H⁺ molar concentration, or Ka, and the concentration of a solution.

Use the half-life calculator to analyze radioactive decay.

Want to know how much product you are going to make in a reaction? Use the theoretical yield calculator!

The atom calculator finds the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom.

Are you carrying out a reaction? Find your reaction efficiency with our percent yield calculator.

If you need to convert ppm (parts per million) to molarity for solutions, this calculator is for you!

Are you having trouble with finding the name of your ionic compound? Our chemical name calculator can help you with that!

Need some help calculating the equilibrium constant of reversible chemical reactions? Having problems with 'how to do it' and 'what do I need this for'? Click and find the answers to all of your questions!

Our buffer pH calculator will help you painlessly compute the pH of a buffer based on an acid or a base.

This Avogadro's number calculator will help you find the number of molecules in a mole.

The mixing ratio calculator allows you to compute the percentages of substances in a mixture and multiply their amount to find the desired volume/weight ratio.

Use this partial pressure calculator to learn about four partial pressure formulas and several laws. Also, find out how pressure is used by divers and doctors.

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Chemistry calculators

The atomic mass calculator takes the number of protons and neutrons in an atom and displays the atomic mass in atomic mass units and kilograms.

The average atomic mass calculator determines the average atomic mass of elements based on the isotopic mass and their natural abundance.

In this bond order calculator we will show you how to find the bond order using Lewis structures, or a formula derived from the molecular orbital theory.

Learn how to calculate the effect of shielding on electrons with our effective nuclear charge calculator.

Find the full electronic configuration and valence electrons of any periodic element using this electron configuration calculator.

This electronegativity calculator is an efficient tool to calculate the type of bond formed between two atoms based on their electronegativities.

Check how many grams are contained in 1 mole of any element or chemical compound with this molar mass calculator.

The percent composition calculator will compute the percentage of elements by weight in a given chemical compound.

The percent ionic character calculator allows you to find the behavior of a chemical bond between any two atoms.

The AFR calculator gives you the rate between the mass of air and the mass of fuel of a complete combustion process.

Our atom economy calculator can help you estimate the quantity of waste in your chemical reactions.

Determine the hydrogen ion concentration from pH using this hydrogen ion concentration calculator.

The molality calculator helps you find the molal concentration, given the number of moles of solute and the mass of the solvent.

Calculate the molar mass of a gas using the ideal gas law.

The molecular weight calculator allows you to easily calculate the mass of a given molecule.

The mole fraction calculator provides you with the solution to your chemical questions - using two different methods!

Find out the number of equivalents present per liter of solution using our normality calculator.

The activity coefficient calculator is a tool to determine the ratio of chemical activity to the molar concentration of a substance.

Our alligation calculator is a convenient tool that calculates the alligation ratios of two solutions of varying concentrations to produce a solution with an intermediate concentration. You can also add the desired volume of the solution to know the required volume of the other solutions to achieve a specific alligation ratio.

Our bleach dilution calculator will tell you how much chlorine and water you need to mix together to create your desired bleach concentration.

Buffer capacity calculator is a tool that helps you calculate the resistance of a buffer to pH change.

The concentration calculator helps you to recompute concentration (molarity and percentage concentration).

Work out how much you are diluting something by using our dilution factor calculator.

The Henderson-Hasselbalch calculator is a simple biochemical tool for assessing the pH of a buffer solution.

The mass percent calculator finds the ratio between the mass of a mixture's component and the total mass of the mixture.

The neutralization calculator allows you to find the normality of a solution.

With our tool, you can easily convert percentage concentration to molarity.

Our Raoult's law calculator is a convenient tool to calculate the vapor pressure of an ideal solution. You can also calculate the vapor pressure and mole fraction for a pure solvent as well.

The reconstitution calculator evaluates the volume and mass required to reconstruct a drug by adding a liquid diluent to a dry ingredient.

The saponification value calculator determines the saponification number of fats based on the molarity and weight of the oil.

This serial dilution calculator will give you all the necessary information to carry out a serial dilution.

The solution dilution calculator tells you how to dilute a stock solution of known concentration.

Use the TDS calculator to determine water's total dissolved solids from water chemistry analysis or its electrical conductivity EC.

Use our titration calculator to determine the molarity of your solution.

Estimate the water hardness based on the calcium and magnesium concentration using the water hardness calculator.

The activation energy calculator finds the energy required to start a chemical reaction according to the Arrhenius equation.

Do you want to calculate how much product you are going to make in a chemical reaction? Use our actual yield calculator!

The Arrhenius equation calculator will help you find the number of successful collisions in a reaction – its rate constant.

The Kp calculator will give you the relationship between two equilibrium constants: Kp and Kc.

This molar ratio calculator will help you determine the molar ratio between the different reactants and products in a balanced chemical reaction.

Our Rate Constant Calculator will compute the rate constant, the rate of the reaction or the concentration of the substance using the rate laws.

Effortlessly calculate Q for the reaction and master Q in chemistry with our advanced reaction quotient calculator. Get accurate results now!

If you want to know the boiling point of some most common substances at a given pressure, try our boiling point calculator.

The boiling point at altitude calculator finds the boiling point of water at different altitudes.

Determine the change in boiling point of a solution using boiling point elevation calculator.

Entropy calculator uses the Gibbs free energy formula, the entropy change for chemical reactions formula, and estimates the isothermal entropy change of ideal gases.

Use the freezing point depression calculator to determine the effect of adding a nonvolatile solute on the freezing point temperature of the pure solvent.

This Gibbs free energy calculator determines whether the reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous.

Gibbs' phase rule calculator finds the number of degrees of freedom with a known number of components and phases using the phase rule equation.

Determine the heat released during the combustion process using the heat of the combustion calculator.

The standard temperature and pressure calculator allows you to painlessly compute the volume and number of moles of a substance in standard conditions.

The vapor pressure calculator helps you learn about phase transition, latent heat, the Clausius-Clapeyron equation and other parts of thermodynamics and chemistry.

With this vapor pressure of water calculator, you can find the vapor pressure at a particular temperature according to five different formulas. This calculator works for the standard 0-100 °C range as well as temperatures above 100 °C and below the freezing point. Awesome!

Cell EMF calculator helps you calculate the electromotive force of an electrochemical cell.

Learn the principles of electrochemistry with our Faraday's law of electrolysis calculator.

The ionic strength calculator is a convenient tool to help you calculate the ionic strength of a solution based on the ions present in it and their charge.

Use the lattice energy calculator to find the amount of energy stored within a large ionic compound.

The Nernst equation calculator applies the fundamental electrochemistry equation to find the reduction potential in a cell reaction.

The diffusion coefficient calculator quickly tells you the diffusion coefficient in Einstein-Smoluchowski diffusion processes.

The rate of effusion calculator calculates the rate of diffusion or effusion of one gas into another based on the molar weights of the two gases. It can also give you the molar weight of a gas, based on its rate of diffusion.

The Langmuir isotherm calculator is a simple way to compute the fraction of the adsorbent surface covered by adsorbate, according to the Langmuir adsorption model.

The osmotic pressure calculator finds the pressure required to completely stop the osmosis process.

Our radioactive decay calculator will help you understand what radioactive decay is and how it is related to the activity of a substance.

Use the two-photon absorption calculator to calculate the expected excitation rate in a two-photon absorption process.

Determine a liquid's capillary pressure and height in a tube using our Young-Laplace equation calculator.

Omni's chemical oxygen demand calculator is your one-stop tool to determine the amount of oxygen needed to oxidize the organic compounds in water.

The combustion analysis calculator determines the empirical and molecular formulas of C, H, O, and hydrocarbon compounds.

The combustion reaction calculator will give any hydrocarbon or C, H, O organic compound balanced combustion reaction.

Use the crude protein calculator to determine an estimate of the protein content of a sample you are analyzing using the Kjeldahl method.

Use the degree of unsaturation calculator to determine the number of rings and pi bonds using the molecular formula of your organic structure.

The double bond equivalent calculator is here to help you determine the number of double bonds, triple bonds, or rings in an organic molecule.

You can use this liquid ethylene density calculator to both calculate and look up the density of liquid ethylene at specific pressures and temperatures.

Use this online radiocarbon dating calculator to determine the age of prehistoric organic samples.

With our calibration curve calculator, you will be able to find out the concentration of an unknown sample in a few seconds!

The isoelectric point calculator will help you determine the pH value of a molecule that carries no charge.

Michaelis-Menten equation calculator helps you compute the kinetics of a one-substrate enzyme-catalyzed reaction, commonly found in biochemistry.

The protein solubility calculator is a tool to calculate the percentage concentration of a protein in a saturated solution, an important thermodynamic property.

Our resuspension calculator helps create a stock solution for dissolving oligos.

Use Omni's Beer-Lambert law calculator to calculate the absorbance of light as it passes through any substance. You can also use this calculator to determine the concentration of a solution using Beer's law.

Discover crystallography with our cubic cell calculator.

Use the detention time calculator to determine the time a fluid is kept inside a tank of a given volume and the system's flow rate.

The hydraulic retention time calculator will help you determine the length of time a liquid will remain in a reactor or aeration tank.

Find the interplanar distance for a cubic crystal system using our Miller indices calculator.

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Online Chemistry Calculators

Chemistry Calculators.

Table of Contents

Acid-base reactions, chemical equilibrium, empirical and molecular formulas, electrochemistry, electrolysis, electron quantum numbers, gas laws (ideal, dalton's and graham's law), ionic/covalent bonds, ions and molecules, mass spectrometry.

  • Nuclear decay

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Percentage composition, significant figures, solution concentration.

  • Solution Stoichiometry (Moles, Titration and Molarity Calculations)

List of Common Equations

Periodic table, basic units of measurement (metric/si).

Chemistry is the science of matter: its composition, its properties, the changes that lead to its formation, and the ways it interacts with other matter in its surroundings.  We start with the building blocks of matter - electrons, neutrons, and protons - and build atoms and ions, which then form the molecules and ionic compounds that can react to produce the material world we know.  Careful investigation of the properties and tendencies of these material formations promotes better understanding of the capabilities of the material world.

This collection of chemistry calculators, broken down into different fundamental concepts, is a good survey of introductory chemistry, but also contains some tools for higher level endeavors in such topics as quantum numbers and advanced stoichiometry.

  • WebQC pH calculator - Need to know the pKa of a solution? Or maybe even just the pH? Check out this page for all your acid-base reaction needs.
  • EasyCalculation Neutralization Reaction - There are two ways of checking your work: turning it in and hoping for the best, or using this site. It's as easy as click, plug, and check!
  • Meracalculator Neutralization Reactions - Great when working on neutralization reactions of acids and bases, get back to “normality” with this easy to use problem solver.
  • PFG Buffer Recipes - This simple tool delivers fast and accurate answers, along with the option to print out your results and buffer recipe for future reference.
  • Wiley Buffers - Very simple, ad-free site for buffer calculation.
  • Science Gateway Common Reagents & Buffers - Need to know a buffers' mass or volume? How about the volume of buffer necessary to dilute a solution? Click here also to see a list of common reagents.
  • Activation Energy - Need to know a reaction's activation energy in J/mol instead of Btu/lb mol? Just plug and chug your activation energy answers here for fast and convenient computations.
  • Onlinesciencetools Chemical Equilibrium - Tip the scales in the right direction with this easy to use equilibrium balance. Simply insert your figures into the spaces provided and your formulas will always even out.
  • Tutorvista Equilibrium Constant - Find the equilibrium constant for any equation with this easy to use online equation. Simply input your equilibrium values and click “calculate equilibrium constant.”
  • Colorado State Equilibria - A more advanced, precise online source for tallying equilibria.
  • Chemicalaid Empirical Formulas - Perfect when you need to know the empirical formula of an equation and need the molecular formula, or vice versa.
  • Easycalculation Chemical Formulas - Click here for simple and efficient calculations for the percentage of each element in a given compound.
  • Empirical and Molecular Formula Solver - Want to make sure all your empirical and molecular ducks are in a row? Simply follow the easy instructions on mmsphyschem.com and you'll master this aspect of chemistry in no time.
  • University of Sydney Empirical Formula Calculator - Enter your empirical formulas here and get back the percentage of mass for each element involved.
  • Electrical Driving Force Calculator  - Find the driving force behind any electrochemical reaction with this easy-to-use tool.
  • Calctool.org Nernst Solver - Need to know the actual or standard reversible potential of a Nernst equation? Enter your data into the text boxes and start getting some answers.
  • TutorVista Nernst Equation - Find an equation's reduction potential using this simple Nernst equation. Fill in the allotted text boxes with your figures and let it do the rest.
  • Convert Coulombs to Faraday Constants - Struggling with converting coulombs to Faraday constants? Start your conversions now.
  • Chem.purdue.edu Quantum Numbers and Electron Configuration - Need to see electron quantum numbers explained a different way? This is a great place to start the understanding and mastery process of quantum numbers.
  • Angelo.edu Quantum Numbers, Atomic Orbitals, and Electron Configurations - Didn't quite catch onto electron configurations in class? Here you'll find plenty of examples and explanations of quantum numbers.
  • AJ Design Ideal Gas Law Formulas and Equations - Whether you're solving for density, pressure, temperature or volume using the Ideal gas law,  
  • WebQC Ideal Gas Law - An ideal place for any chemist, student, or otherwise to have quick access to multiple equations and easy-to-use calculation.
  • EasyCalculation Ideal Gas Law - Simply plug in the figures you know from your Ideal gas law equations and let easycalculation.com do the rest.
  • Mera Calculator Dalton's Law - If you need to know the partial pressures of an equation then meracalculator.com is the right fit for you. This site uses Dalton's Law to compute those partial pressure values for you.
  • 1728 Graham's Law of Diffusion - This is a great place to go for Graham's law of diffusion equations. User-friendly, accurate results.
  • Chemical Bond Polarity – Perfect for identifying the bond polarity between two elements.
  • Digital Ionic Equation - Know the name of a molecule but not what it's made of? Simply type in the name and this tool will provide you with the molar mass and empirical formula of the molecule.
  • Shodor Polyatomic Ion - If you know the empirical formula of an ion or molecule, then you can know its name. Great for if you're new to ion and molecules or if you just want to double-check your work.
  • Mera Calculator Polyatomic Ion - Simple yet effective, this calculator allows you to input the positive and negative ions from an empirical formula and it then spits out the molecule's name.
  • AJ Design Kinetic Energy Equations and Formulas - Got kinetic energy equations and numeric values with nowhere to compute them? Derive kinetic energy values here.
  • EngineersEdge Kinetic Energy Equations - Short and simple way to find the kinetic energy of an object. Plug in the equations values in the text boxes and your problems are solved.
  • EasyCalculation Kinetic Energy - Whether you're solving for kinetic energy or mass, just enter in your data and you'll have your answers.
  • Native Mass Spectrometry – Interchangeable calculations of m/z, charge, mass, theoretical charge states.
  • Isotope Distribution and Mass Spec Plotter – Provides both equations as well as plots your mass spectrometry chart for you.

Nuclear Decay

  • AJ Design Radioactive Material Equations and Formulas – Here you'll find detailed instructions on nuclear decay reactions and easy to use interactive equations.
  • UWashington Radioactive Decay - Simple and complete nuclear decay equations that provide precise answers.
  • Rad Pro Nuclear Calculations - Whether you're a career chemist or learning about nuclear decay for the first time, this is the perfect place to input your data and learn more.
  • Radioactive Isotopes Decay - Need a place for fast and easy nuclear decay equations? Here you'll find a fantastic online equation solver.
  • Shodor Nuclear Decay - Need to know the nuclear decay of unstable molecules? With easy data input and answers, and a brief summary of nuclear decay equations themselves.
  • TutorVista Oxidation Number - Type in the desired chemical formula and this useful online tool spits out the oxidation-reduction number in seconds.
  • Shodor Redox Reactions - For a more in depth look at oxidation-reduction reactions check out this great plug and chug problem solver.
  • Wolfram Oxidation Number - Simply type in a chemical formula and in no time at all you will have the oxidation-reduction reaction numbers and structure diagram.
  • TutorVista Percent Composition - Learn the percentage composition by mass of each element in a chemical formula.
  • Chemhaven Percent Composition - Know the percent composition of each element in any chemical formula.
  • Significant Figures - Don't slow down due to long handwritten equations. Plug in your equations or numbers here for fast and reliable tallies of your significant figures.
  • Ostermiller Significant Figures -  Significant figures tripping you up? Click here and input your numbers to derive the correct amount of significant figures for any number as well as identify the least significant decimal.
  • Significant Digits Counter for Chemists - Want to double-check your significant figure count? Just type in your numbers for accurate and precise significant figures.
  • CalculatorSoup Significant Figures – With extensive details on identifying significant figures, this tool also helps teach you how to round (and can check your work).
  • TutorCircle Significant Figures – Extensive listing of examples and instructions on significant figures, with a sig-fig counter so you can even check your work.
  • Calctool Solution Concentration – Convert between mass, volume, and molecular volume to calculate molecular and/or mass concentrations.
  • Advamacs Concentrations – Switch between molecular weight and density, with built in sample solutions to help you study.
  • Easycalculation Dilution of Solutions – Identify the volumes and concentrations of a solution before and after dilution.

Solution Stoichiometry (Moles, titration, and molarity calculations)

  • Endmemo Chemical Mole Grams - Input chemical formulas here to figure out the number of moles or grams in a chemical formula.
  • AJ Design Ideal Gas Law Formulas and Equations - Use this online number cruncher to solve Ideal Gas Law equations and formulas using pressure, volume, and temperature.
  • Lenntech Molecular Weights – Compute the average molecular weight (MW) via molecular formula or from one of the two lists of common organic compounds or elements of the periodic table.
  • Stoichiometry Tool - Enter your balanced chemical equations (use the Chemical Equation Balancer if need be!) to derive the stoichiometry of each equation.
  • OST Stoichiometry – With a wide range of entry parameters and options for gas type as well as output, this tool is essential for your stoichiometry calculations.
  • Reaction Stoichiometry – Given a reaction and select whether you want to calculate the reactant or product.
  • Concentration of a Solution via Titration – Online tool to titrate samples given the concentration of the standard, volume of titrant needed for titration of the standard and of the sample.
  • GraphPad Molarity – Mass, volume, and concentration: given two, easily calculate the other, or else dilute a stock solution.
  • Molaritycalculator.com – Allowing you to calculate mass, volume, or concentration depending on which two are known, this page also has extensive explanations of the different ways to perform these calculations manually.
  • Sigma-Aldrich Mass Molarity – Calculate the mass required for a molar solution of a specified concentration and volume.

Extra Tools

  • Reference Guide of Common Chemistry Equations - Missing an equation in your notes or textbook? Check here for a list of commonly and frequently used equations in chemistry.
  • Interactive Periodic Table - Need a reference while you're doing your chemistry homework, or maybe you just want to learn more about the elements? If so this interactive periodic table is perfect for the casual browser or studying for tests.
  • UCDavis SI Units - Need to know which unit of measure to use for that density equation? Maybe you need to brush up on your measurement prefixes? Whatever the case may be, this list of SI units is a handy reference.
  • Trigonometry
  • Percent Off
  • Statistical Average
  • Standard Deviation
  • Correlation
  • Probability
  • Log/Antilog
  • Critical Value
  • HEX & Binary
  • Weight/Mass
  • Temperature
  • Current Time
  • Time Duration
  • Balance Equations

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  • Number Theory
  • Probability
  • Everyday Math
  • Classical Mechanics
  • Electricity and Magnetism
  • Computer Science
  • Quantitative Finance

Take a guided, problem-solving based approach to learning Chemistry. These compilations provide unique perspectives and applications you won't find anywhere else.

The Chemical Reaction

What's inside.

  • Introduction
  • Chemical Kinetics
  • Reaction Principles
  • Elements of Reactivity

Science Essentials

  • Introduction to Science
  • The Scientific Process
  • Measurement

Physics of the Everyday

  • In the House
  • On the Field
  • Fuel the World
  • Out in Nature
  • Infrastructure

Community Wiki

Browse through thousands of Chemistry wikis written by our community of experts.

Fundamentals

  • Chemistry in action
  • Atoms, Molecules, Elements, Compounds
  • Dalton's Atomic Model
  • Bohr's Model
  • Periodic Table of the Elements
  • Atomic and Molecular Weights
  • Mole Concept
  • Concentration Terminology
  • Nuclear Decay
  • Balancing Chemical Reactions
  • Limiting Reagents
  • Laws of Chemical Combination
  • Try It At Home Chemistry Experiments
  • Chemistry Of Drugs

Chemical Bonding

  • Ionic Compounds
  • Lewis Structure
  • Hybridisation
  • Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSPER) Theory
  • Sigma and Pi Bonds
  • Molecular Orbital Theory
  • Coordinate Bonds
  • Polarity of a Molecule
  • Van der Waals Force
  • Dipole Interactions
  • Hydrogen Bonds
  • Surface Tension
  • Strength of Intermolecular Forces
  • Chemistry of Diamonds

Reaction Mechanics

  • Chemical Equilibrium
  • Basics of Statistical Mechanics
  • Le Chatelier's Principle
  • Acids and Bases
  • Acid/Base Equilibrium
  • Thermal Expansion
  • Rate of Chemical Reactions
  • Order of Chemical Reactions
  • Activation Energy
  • Chemistry of Fireworks
  • Thermometry
  • Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis
  • Galvanic Cells

Organic Chemistry

  • Structural Representations of Organic Compounds
  • IUPAC Nomenclature - Branched Chain Alkanes, Cyclic Compounds Unsaturated Compounds
  • Structural Isomerism
  • Geometric Isomerism
  • Optical Isomerism
  • Electrophiles and Nucleophiles
  • Inductive Effect, Electromeric Effect, Resonance Effects, and Hyperconjugation
  • Reactive Intermediates
  • Common Types of Organic Reactions
  • Grignard Reagent
  • Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes
  • Do objects gain protons to become positive?
  • Chemistry Of Poisons
  • Chemistry Of Nutrition
  • Reverse Transcription
  • Mutation and DNA repair
  • Viral Replication

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Simplifying Organic Chemistry

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Orgosolver provides study tools to help students with their organic chemistry homework and preparation for quizzes, exams, or even the MCAT. Our tools, quizzes, and study guides are designed to help students test every reaction or mechanism with any molecule they draw!

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1.12: Scientific Problem Solving

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How can we use problem solving in our everyday routines?

One day you wake up and realize your clock radio did not turn on to get you out of bed. You are puzzled, so you decide to find out what happened. You list three possible explanations:

  • There was a power failure and your radio cannot turn on.
  • Your little sister turned it off as a joke.
  • You did not set the alarm last night.

Upon investigation, you find that the clock is on, so there is no power failure. Your little sister was spending the night with a friend and could not have turned the alarm off. You notice that the alarm is not set—your forgetfulness made you late. You have used the scientific method to answer a question.

Scientific Problem Solving

Humans have always wondered about the world around them. One of the questions of interest was (and still is): what is this world made of? Chemistry has been defined in various ways as the study of matter. What matter consists of has been a source of debate over the centuries. One of the key areas for this debate in the Western world was Greek philosophy.

The basic approach of the Greek philosophers was to discuss and debate the questions they had about the world. There was no gathering of information to speak of, just talking. As a result, several ideas about matter were put forth, but never resolved. The first philosopher to carry out the gathering of data was Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). He recorded many observations on the weather, on plant and animal life and behavior, on physical motions, and a number of other topics. Aristotle could probably be considered the first "real" scientist, because he made systematic observations of nature and tried to understand what he was seeing.

Picture of Aristotle

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Two approaches to logical thinking developed over the centuries. These two methods are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning . Inductive reasoning involves getting a collection of specific examples and drawing a general conclusion from them. Deductive reasoning takes a general principle and then draws a specific conclusion from the general concept. Both are used in the development of scientific ideas.

Inductive reasoning first involves the collection of data: "If I add sodium metal to water, I observe a very violent reaction. Every time I repeat the process, I see the same thing happen." A general conclusion is drawn from these observations: the addition of sodium to water results in a violent reaction.

In deductive reasoning, a specific prediction is made based on a general principle. One general principle is that acids turn blue litmus paper red. Using the deductive reasoning process, one might predict: "If I have a bottle of liquid labeled 'acid', I expect the litmus paper to turn red when I immerse it in the liquid."

The Idea of the Experiment

Inductive reasoning is at the heart of what is now called the " scientific method ." In European culture, this approach was developed mainly by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a British scholar. He advocated the use of inductive reasoning in every area of life, not just science. The scientific method, as developed by Bacon and others, involves several steps:

  • Ask a question - identify the problem to be considered.
  • Make observations - gather data that pertains to the question.
  • Propose an explanation (a hypothesis) for the observations.
  • Make new observations to test the hypothesis further.

Picture of Sir Francis Bacon

Note that this should not be considered a "cookbook" for scientific research. Scientists do not sit down with their daily "to do" list and write down these steps. The steps may not necessarily be followed in order. But this does provide a general idea of how scientific research is usually done.

When a hypothesis is confirmed repeatedly, it eventually becomes a theory—a general principle that is offered to explain natural phenomena. Note a key word— explain , or  explanation . A theory offers a description of why something happens. A law, on the other hand, is a statement that is always true, but offers no explanation as to why. The law of gravity says a rock will fall when dropped, but does not explain why (gravitational theory is very complex and incomplete at present). The kinetic molecular theory of gases, on the other hand, states what happens when a gas is heated in a closed container (the pressure increases), but also explains why (the motions of the gas molecules are increased due to the change in temperature). Theories do not get "promoted" to laws, because laws do not answer the "why" question.

  • The early Greek philosophers spent their time talking about nature, but did little or no actual exploration or investigation.
  • Inductive reasoning - to develop a general conclusion from a collection of observations.
  • Deductive reasoning - to make a specific statement based on a general principle.
  • Scientific method - a process of observation, developing a hypothesis, and testing that hypothesis.
  • What was the basic shortcoming of the Greek philosophers approach to studying the material world?
  • How did Aristotle improve the approach?
  • Define “inductive reasoning” and give an example.
  • Define “deductive reasoning” and give an example.
  • What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?
  • What is the difference between a theory and a law?

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Chemistry Problems

Use chemistry problems as a tool for mastering chemistry concepts. Some of these examples show using formulas while others include lists of examples.

Acids, Bases, and pH Chemistry Problems

Learn about acids and bases. See how to calculate pH, pOH, K a , K b , pK a , and pK b .

  • Practice calculating pH.
  • Get example pH, pK a , pK b , K a , and K b calculations.
  • Get examples of amphoterism.

Atomic Structure Problems

Learn about atomic mass, the Bohr model, and the part of the atom.

  • Practice identifying atomic number, mass number, and atomic mass.
  • Get examples showing ways to find atomic mass.
  • Use Avogadro’s number and find the mass of a single atom .
  • Review the Bohr model of the atom.
  • Find the number of valence electrons of an element’s atom.

Chemical Bonds

Learn how to use electronegativity to determine whether atoms form ionic or covalent bonds. See chemistry problems drawing Lewis structures.

  • Identify ionic and covalent bonds.
  • Learn about ionic compounds and get examples.
  • Practice identifying ionic compounds.
  • Get examples of binary compounds.
  • Learn about covalent compounds and their properties.
  • See how to assign oxidation numbers.
  • Practice drawing Lewis structures.
  • Practice calculating bond energy.

Chemical Equations

Practice writing and balancing chemical equations.

  • Learn the steps of balancing equations.
  • Practice balancing chemical equations (practice quiz).
  • Get examples finding theoretical yield.
  • Practice calculating percent yield.
  • Learn to recognize decomposition reactions.
  • Practice recognizing synthesis reactions.
  • Practice recognizing single replacement reactions.
  • Recognize double replacement reactions.
  • Find the mole ratio between chemical species in an equation.

Concentration and Solutions

Learn how to calculate concentration and explore chemistry problems that affect chemical concentration, including freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, and vapor pressure elevation.

  • Get example concentration calculations in several units.
  • Practice calculating normality (N).
  • Practice calculating molality (m).
  • Explore example molarity (M) calculations.
  • Get examples of colligative properties of solutions.
  • See the definition and examples of saturated solutions.
  • See the definition and examples of unsaturated solutions.
  • Get examples of miscible and immiscible liquids.

Error Calculations

Learn about the types of error and see worked chemistry example problems.

  • See how to calculate percent.
  • Practice absolute and relative error calculations.
  • See how to calculate percent error.
  • See how to find standard deviation.
  • Calculate mean, median, and mode.
  • Review the difference between accuracy and precision.

Equilibrium Chemistry Problems

Learn about Le Chatelier’s principle, reaction rates, and equilibrium.

  • Solve activation energy chemistry problems.
  • Review factors that affect reaction rate.
  • Practice calculating the van’t Hoff factor.

Practice chemistry problems using the gas laws, including Raoult’s law, Graham’s law, Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, and Dalton’s law of partial pressures.

  • Calculate vapor pressure.
  • Solve Avogadro’s law problems.
  • Practice Boyle’s law problems.
  • See Charles’ law example problems.
  • Solve combined gas law problems.
  • Solve Gay-Lussac’s law problems.

Some chemistry problems ask you identify examples of states of matter and types of mixtures. While there are any chemical formulas to know, it’s still nice to have lists of examples.

  • Practice density calculations.
  • Identify intensive and extensive properties of matter.
  • See examples of intrinsic and extrinsic properties of matter.
  • Get the definition and examples of solids.
  • Get the definition and examples of gases.
  • See the definition and examples of liquids.
  • Learn what melting point is and get a list of values for different substances.
  • Get the azeotrope definition and see examples.
  • See how to calculate specific volume of a gas.
  • Get examples of physical properties of matter.
  • Get examples of chemical properties of matter.
  • Review the states of matter.

Molecular Structure Chemistry Problems

See chemistry problems writing chemical formulas. See examples of monatomic and diatomic elements.

  • Practice empirical and molecular formula problems.
  • Practice simplest formula problems.
  • See how to calculate molecular mass.
  • Get examples of the monatomic elements.
  • See examples of binary compounds.
  • Calculate the number of atoms and molecules in a drop of water.

Nomenclature

Practice chemistry problems naming ionic compounds, hydrocarbons, and covalent compounds.

  • Practice naming covalent compounds.
  • Learn hydrocarbon prefixes in organic chemistry.

Nuclear Chemistry

These chemistry problems involve isotopes, nuclear symbols, half-life, radioactive decay, fission, fusion.

  • Review the types of radioactive decay.

Periodic Table

Learn how to use a periodic table and explore periodic table trends.

  • Know the trends in the periodic table.
  • Review how to use a periodic table.
  • Explore the difference between atomic and ionic radius and see their trends on the periodic table.

Physical Chemistry

Explore thermochemistry and physical chemistry, including enthalpy, entropy, heat of fusion, and heat of vaporization.

  • Practice heat of vaporization chemistry problems.
  • Practice heat of fusion chemistry problems.
  • Calculate heat required to turn ice into steam.
  • Practice calculating specific heat.
  • Get examples of potential energy.
  • Get examples of kinetic energy.
  • See example activation energy calculations.

Spectroscopy and Quantum Chemistry Problems

See chemistry problems involving the interaction between light and matter.

  • Calculate wavelength from frequency or frequency from wavelength.

Stoichiometry Chemistry Problems

Practice chemistry problems balancing formulas for mass and charge. Learn about reactants and products.

  • Get example mole ratio problems.
  • Calculate percent yield.
  • Learn how to assign oxidation numbers.
  • Get the definition and examples of reactants in chemistry.
  • Get the definition and examples of products in chemical reactions.

Unit Conversions

There are some many examples of unit conversions that they have their own separate page!

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chemistry problem solving online

Problems and Problem Solving in Chemistry Education: Analysing Data, Looking for Patterns and Making Deductions

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1.1 Problems and Problem Solving

1.2 types and kinds of problems, 1.3 novice versus expert problem solvers/problem solving heuristics, 1.4 chemistry problems, 1.4.1 problems in stoichiometry, 1.4.2 problems in organic chemistry, 1.5 the present volume, 1.5.1 general issues in problem solving in chemistry education, 1.5.2 problem solving in organic chemistry and biochemistry, 1.5.3 chemistry problem solving under specific contexts, 1.5.4 new technologies in problem solving in chemistry, 1.5.5 new perspectives for problem solving in chemistry education, chapter 1: introduction − the many types and kinds of chemistry problems.

  • Published: 17 May 2021
  • Special Collection: 2021 ebook collection Series: Advances in Chemistry Education Research
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G. Tsaparlis, in Problems and Problem Solving in Chemistry Education: Analysing Data, Looking for Patterns and Making Deductions, ed. G. Tsaparlis, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2021, ch. 1, pp. 1-14.

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Problem solving is a ubiquitous skill in the practice of chemistry, contributing to synthesis, spectroscopy, theory, analysis, and the characterization of compounds, and remains a major goal in chemistry education. A fundamental distinction should be drawn, on the one hand, between real problems and algorithmic exercises, and the differences in approach to problem solving exhibited between experts and novices on the other. This chapter outlines the many types and kinds of chemistry problems, placing particular emphasis on studies in quantitative stoichiometry problems and on qualitative organic chemistry problems (reaction mechanisms, synthesis, and spectroscopic identification of structure). The chapter concludes with a brief look at the contents of this book, which we hope will act as an appetizer for more systematic study.

According to the ancient Greeks, “The beginning of education is the study of names”, meaning the “examination of terminology”. 1 The word “problem” (in Greek: «πρόβλημα » /“ problēma” ) derives from the Greek verb “ proballein ” (“pro + ballein”), meaning “to throw forward” ( cf. ballistic and ballistics ), and also “to suggest”, “to argue” etc. Hence, the initial meaning of a “ problēma ” was “something that stands out”, from which various other meanings followed, for instance that of “a question” or of “a state of embarrassment”, which are very close to the current meaning of a problem . Among the works of Aristotle is that of “ Problēmata ”, which is a collection of “why” questions/problems and answers on “medical”, “mathematical”, “astronomical”, and other issues, e.g. , “Why do the changes of seasons and the winds intensify or pause and decide and cause the diseases?” 1  

Problem solving is a complex set of activities, processes, and behaviors for which various models have been used at various times. Specifically, “problem solving is a process by which the learner discovers a combination of previously learned rules that they can apply to achieve a solution to a new situation (that is, the problem)”. 2   Zoller identifies problem solving, along with critical thinking and decision making, as high-order cognitive skills, assuming these capabilities to be the most important learning outcomes of good teaching. 3   Accordingly, problem solving is an integral component in students’ education in science and Eylon and Linn have considered problem solving as one of the major research perspectives in science education. 4  

Bodner made a fundamental distinction between problems and exercises, which should be emphasized from the outset (see also the Foreword to this book). 5–7   For example, many problems in science can be simply solved by the application of well-defined procedures ( algorithms ), thus turning the problems into routine/algorithmic exercises. On the other hand, a real/novel/authentic problem is likely to require, for its solution, the contribution of a number of mental resources. 8  

According to Sternberg, intelligence can best be understood through the study of nonentrenched ( i.e. , novel) tasks that require students to use concepts or form strategies that differ from those they are accustomed to. 9   Further, it was suggested that the limited success of the cognitive-correlates and cognitive-components approaches to measuring intelligence are due in part to the use of tasks that are more entrenched (familiar) than would be optimal for the study of intelligence.

The division of cognitive or thinking skills into Higher-Order (HOCS/HOTS) and Lower-Order (LOCS/LOTS) 3,10   is very relevant. Students are found to perform considerably better on questions requiring LOTS than on those requiring HOTS. Interestingly, performance on questions requiring HOTS often does not correlate with that on questions requiring LOTS. 10   In a school context, a task can be an exercise or a real problem depending on the subject's expertise and on what had been taught. A task may then be an exercise for one student, but a problem for another student. 11   I return to the issue of HOT/LOTS in Chapters 17 and 18.

Johnstone has provided a systematic classification of problem types, which is reproduced in Table 1.1 . 8   Types 1 and 2 are the “normal” problems usually encountered in academic situations. Type 1 is of the algorithmic exercise nature. Type 2 can become algorithmic with experience or teaching. Types 3 and 4 are more complex, with type 4 requiring very different reasoning from that used in types 1 and 2. Types 5–8 have open outcomes and/or goals, and can be very demanding. Type 8 is the nearest to real-life, everyday problems.

Classification of problems. Reproduced from ref. 8 with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

Problem solving in chemistry, as in any other domain, is a huge field, so one cannot really be an expert in all aspects of it. Complementary to Johnstone's classification scheme, one can also identify the following forms: quantitative problems that involve mathematical formulas and computations, and qualitative ones; problems with missing or extraordinary data, with a unique solution/answer, or open problems with more than one solution; problems that cannot be solved exactly but need mathematical approximations; problems that need a laboratory experiment or a computer or a data bank; theoretical/thought problems or real-life ones; problems that can be answered through a literature search, or need the collaboration of specific experts, etc.

According to Bodner and Herron, “Problem solving is what chemists do, regardless of whether they work in the area of synthesis, spectroscopy, theory, analysis, or the characterization of compounds”. 12   Hancock et al. comment that: “The objective of much of chemistry teaching is to equip learners with knowledge they then apply to solve problems”, 13   and Cooper and Stowe ascertain that “historically, problem solving has been a major goal of chemistry education”. 14   The latter authors argue further that problem solving is not a monolithic activity, so the following activities “could all be (and have been) described as problem solving:

solving numerical problems using a provided equation

proposing organic syntheses of target compounds

constructing mechanisms of reactions

identifying patterns in data and making deductions from them

modeling chemical phenomena by computation

identifying an unknown compound from its spectroscopic properties

However, these activities require different patterns of thought, background knowledge, skills, and different types of evidence of student mastery” 14   (p. 6063).

Central among problem solving models have been those dealing with the differences in problem solving between experts and novices. Experts ( e.g., school and university teachers) are as a rule fluent in solving problems in their own field, but often fail to communicate to their students the required principles, strategies, and techniques for problem solving. It is then no surprise that the differences between experts and novices have been a central theme in problem solving education research. Mathematics came first, in 1945, with the publication of George Polya's classic book “ How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method ”: 15  

“The teacher should put himself in the student's place, he should see the student's case, he should try to understand what is going on in the student's mind, and ask a question or indicate a step that could have occurred to the student himself ”.

Polya provided advice on teaching problem solving and proposed a four-stage model that included a detailed list of problem solving heuristics. The four stages are: understand the problem, devise a plan, carry out the plan, and look back . In 1979, Bourne, Dominowski, and Loftus modeled a three-stage process, consisting of preparation, production , and evaluation . 16   Then came the physicists. According to Larkin and Reif, novices look for an algorithm, while experts tend to think conceptually and use general strategies . Other basic differences are: (a) the comprehensive and more complete scheme employed by experts, in contrast to the sketchy one used by novices; and (b) the extra qualitative analysis step usually applied by experts, before embarking on detailed and quantitative means of solution. 17,18   Reif (1981, 1983) suggested further that in order for one to be able to solve problems one must have available: (a) a strategy for problem solving; (b) the right knowledge base, and (c) a good organization of the knowledge base. 18,19  

Chemistry problem solving followed suit providing its own heuristics. Pilot and co-workers proposed useful procedures that include the steps that characterize expert solvers. 20–22   They developed an ordered system of heuristics, which is applicable to quantitative problem solving in many fields of science and technology. In particular, they devised a “ Program of Actions and Methods ”, which consists of four phases, as follows: Phase 1, analysis of the problem; Phase 2, transformation of the problem; Phase 3, execution of routine operations; Phase 4, checking the answer and interpretation of the results. Genya proposed the use of “sequences” of problems of gradually increasing complexity , with qualitative problems being used at the beginning. 23  

Randles and Overton compared novice students with expert chemists in the approaches they used when solving open-ended problems. 24     Open-ended problems are defined as problems where not all the required data are given, where there is no one single possible strategy and where there is no single correct answer to the problem. It was found that: undergraduates adopted a greater number of novice-like approaches and produced poorer quality solutions; academics exhibited expert-like approaches and produced higher quality solutions; the approaches taken by industrial chemists were described as transitional.

Finally, one can justify the differences between novices and experts by employing the concept of working memory (see Chapter 5). Experienced learners can group ideas together to see much information as one ‘ chunk ’, while novice learners see all the separate pieces of information, causing an overload of working memory, which then cannot handle all the separate pieces at once. 25,26  

Chemistry is unique in the diversity of its problems, some of which, such as problems in physical and analytical chemistry, are similar to problems in physics, while others, such problems in stoichiometry, in organic chemistry (especially in reaction mechanisms and synthesis), and in the spectroscopic identification of compounds and of molecular structure, are idiosyncratic to chemistry. We will have more to say about stoichiometry and organic chemistry below, but before that there is a need to refer to three figures whom we consider the originators of the field of chemistry education research: the Americans J. Dudley Herron and Dorothy L. Gabel and the Scot Alex H. Johnstone, for it is not a coincidence that all three dealt with chemistry problem solving.

For Herron, successful problem solvers have a good command of basic facts and principles; construct appropriate representations; have general reasoning strategies that permit logical connections among elements of the problem; and apply a number of verification strategies to ensure that the representation of the problem is consistent with the facts given, the solution is logically sound, the computations are error-free, and the problem solved is the problem presented. 27–29   Gabel has also carried out fundamental work on problem solving in chemistry. 30   For instance, she determined students’ skills and concepts that are prerequisites for solving problems on moles, through the use of analog tasks, and identified specific conceptual and mathematical difficulties. 31   She also studied how problem categorization enhances problem solving achievement. 32   Finally, Johnstone studied the connection of problem solving ability in chemistry (but also in physics and biology) with working memory and information processing. We will deal extensively with his relevant work in this book (see Chapter 5). In the rest of this section, reference will be made to some further foundational research work on problem solving in chemistry.

Working with German 16-year-old students in 1988, Sumfleth found that the knowledge of chemical terms is a necessary but not sufficient prerequisite for successful problem solving in structure-properties relationships and in stoichiometry. 33   In the U.S. it was realized quite early (in 1984) that students often use algorithmic methods without understanding the relevant underlying concepts. 32   Indeed, Nakhleh and Mitchell confirmed later (1993) that little connection existed between algorithmic problem solving skills and conceptual understanding. 34   These authors provided ways to evaluate students along a continuum of low-high algorithmic and conceptual problem solving skills, and admitted that the lecture method teaches students to solve algorithms rather than teaching chemistry concepts. Gabel and Bunce also emphasized that students who have not sufficiently grasped the chemistry behind a problem tend to use a memorized formula, manipulate the formula and plug in numbers until they fit. 30   Niaz compared student performance on conceptual and computational problems of chemical equilibrium and reported that students who perform better on problems requiring conceptual understanding also perform significantly better on problems requiring manipulation of data, that is, computational problems; he further suggested that solving computational problems before conceptual problems would be more conducive to learning, so it is plausible to suggest that students’ ability to solve computational/algorithmic problems is an essential prerequisite for a “progressive transition” leading to a resolution of novel problems that require conceptual understanding. 35–37  

Stoichiometry problems are unique to chemistry and at the same time constitute a stumbling block for many students in introductory chemistry courses, with students often relying on algorithms. A review of some fundamental studies follows.

Hans-Jürgen Schmid carried out large scale studies in 1994 and 1997 in Germany and found that when working on easy-to-calculate problems students tended to invent/create a “non-mathematical” strategy of their own, but changed their strategy when moving from an easy-to-calculate problem to a more difficult one. 38,39   Swedish students were also found to behave in a similar manner. 40   A recent (2016) study with junior pre-service chemistry teachers in the Philippines reported that the most prominent strategy was the (algorithmic) mole method, while very few used the proportionality method and none the logical method. 41  

Lorenzo developed, implemented, and evaluated a useful problem solving heuristic in the case of quantitative problems on stoichiometry and solutions. 42   The heuristic works as a metacognitive tool by helping students to understand the steps involved in problem solving, and further to tackle problems in a systematic way. The approach guides students by means of logical reasoning to make a qualitative representation of the solution to a problem before undertaking calculations, thus using a ‘backwards strategy’.

The problem format can serve to make a problem easier or more difficult. A large scale study with 16-year-old students in the UK examined three stoichiometry problems in a number of ways. 43   In Test A the questions were presented as they had previously appeared on National School Examinations, while in Test B each of the questions on Test A was presented in a structured sequence of four parts. An example of one of the questions from both Test A and Test B is given below.

  • Test A. Silver chloride (AgCl) is formed in the following reaction: AgNO 3 + HCl → AgCl + HNO 3 Calculate the maximum yield of solid silver chloride that can be obtained from reacting 25 cm 3 of 2.0 M hydrochloric acid with excess silver nitrate. (AgCl = 143.5)

Test B. Silver chloride (AgCl) is formed in the following reaction:

(a) How many moles of silver chloride can be made from 1 mole of hydrochloric acid?

(b) How many moles are there in 25 cm 3 of 2.0 M hydrochloric acid?

(c) How many moles of silver chloride can be made from the number of moles of acid in (b)?

(d) What is the mass of the number of moles of silver chloride in (c)? (AgCl = 143.5)

Student scores on Test B were significantly higher than those on Test A, both overall and on each of the individual questions, showing that structuring serves to make the questions easier.

Drummond and Selvaratnam examined students’ competence in intellectual strategies needed for solving chemistry problems. 44   They gave students problems in two forms, the ‘standard’ one and one with ‘hint’ questions that suggested the strategies which should be used to solve the problems. Although performance in all test items was poor, it improved for the ‘hint’ questions.

Finally, Gulacar and colleagues studied the differences in general cognitive abilities and domain specific skills of higher- and lower-achieving students in stoichiometry problems and in addition they proposed a novel code system for revealing sources of students’ difficulties with stoichiometry. 45,46   The latter topic is tackled in Chapter 4 by Gulacar, Cox, and Fynewever.

Stoichiometry problems have also a place in organic chemistry, but non-mathematical problem solving in organic chemistry is quite a different story. 47   Studying the mechanisms of organic reactions is a challenging activity. The spectroscopic identification of the structure of organic molecules also requires high expertise and a lot of experience. On the other hand, an organic synthesis problem can be complex and difficult for the students, because the number of pathways by which students could synthesise target substance “X” from starting substance “A” may be numerous. The problem is then very demanding in terms of information processing. In addition, students find it difficult to accept that one starting compound treated with only one set of reagents could lead to more than one correct product. A number of studies have dealt with organic synthesis. 48–50   The following comments from two students echo the difficulties faced by many students (pp. 209–210): 50  

“… having to do a synthesis problem is one of the more difficult things. Having to put everything together and sort of use your creativity, and knowing that I know everything solid to come up with a synthesis problem is difficult… it's just you can remember… you can use H 2 and nickel to add hydrogen to a bond but then there's like four other ways so if you're just looking for like what you react with, you can remember just that one but if you need five options just in case it's one of the other options that's given on the test… So, you have to know like multiple ways… and some things are used to maybe reduce… for example, something is used to reduce like a carboxylic acid and something else, the same thing, is used to reduce an aldehyde but then something else is used to like oxidize”.

Qualitative organic chemistry problems are dealt with in Chapters 6 and 7.

The present volume is the result of contributions from many experts in the field of chemistry education, with a clear focus on what can be identified as problem solving research. We are particularly fortunate that George Bodner , an authority in chemistry problem solving, has written the foreword to this book. (George has also published a review of research on problem solving in chemistry. 8   )

The book consists of eighteen chapters that cover many aspects of problem solving in chemistry and are organized under the following themes: (I) General issues in problem solving in chemistry education; (II) Problem solving in organic chemistry and biochemistry; (III) Chemistry problem solving in specific contexts; (IV) New technologies in problem solving in chemistry, and (V) New perspectives for problem solving in chemistry education. In the rest of this introductory chapter, I present a brief preview of the following contents.

The book starts with a discussion of qualitative reasoning in problem solving in chemistry. This type of reasoning helps us build inferences based on the analysis of qualitative values ( e.g. , high, low, weak, and strong) of the properties and behaviors of the components of a system, and the application of structure–property relationships. In Chapter 2, Talanquer summarizes core findings from research in chemistry education on the challenges that students face when engaging in this type of reasoning, and the strategies that support their learning in this area.

For Graulich, Langner, Vo , and Yuriev (Chapter 3), chemical problem solving relies on conceptual knowledge and the deployment of metacognitive problem solving processes, but novice problem solvers often grapple with both challenges simultaneously. Multiple scaffolding approaches have been developed to support student problem solving, often designed to address specific aspects or content area. The authors present a continuum of scaffolding so that a blending of prompts can be used to achieve specific goals. Providing students with opportunities to reflect on the problem solving work of others – peers or experts – can also be of benefit in deepening students’ conceptual reasoning skills.

A central theme in Gulacar, Cox and Fynewever 's chapter (Chapter 4) is the multitude of ways in which students can be unsuccessful when trying to solve problems. Each step of a multi-step problem can be labeled as a subproblem and represents content that students need to understand and use to be successful with the problem. The authors have developed a set of codes to categorize each student's attempted solution for every subproblem as either successful or not, and if unsuccessful, identifying why, thus providing a better understanding of common barriers to success, illustrated in the context of stoichiometry.

In Chapter 5, Tsaparlis re-examines the “working memory overload hypothesis” and associated with it the Johnstone–El Banna predictive model of problem solving. This famous predictive model is based on the effect of information processing, especially of working-memory capacity on problem solving. Other factors include mental capacity or M -capacity, degree of field dependence/independence, and developmental level/scientific reasoning. The Johnstone–El Banna model is re-examined and situations are explored where the model is valid, but also its limitations. A further examination of the role of the above cognitive factors in problem solving in chemistry is also made.

Proposing reaction mechanisms using the electron-pushing formalism, which is central to the practice and teaching of organic chemistry, is the subject of Chapter 6 by Bahttacharyya . The author argues that MR (Mechanistic Reasoning) using the EPF (Electron-Pushing Formalism) incorporates several other forms of reasoning, and is also considered as a useful transferrable skill for the biomedical sciences and allied fields.

Flynn considers synthesis problems as among the most challenging questions for students in organic chemistry courses. In Chapter 7, she describes the strategies used by students who have been successful in solving synthetic problems. Associated classroom and problem set activities are also described.

We all know that the determination of chemical identity is a fundamental chemistry practice that now depends almost exclusively on the characterization of molecular structure through spectroscopic analysis. This analysis is a day-to-day task for practicing organic chemists, and instruction in modern organic chemistry aims to cultivate such expertise. Accordingly, in Chapter 8, Connor and Shultz review studies that have investigated reasoning and problem solving approaches used to evaluate NMR and IR spectroscopic data for organic structural determination, and they provide a foundation for understanding how this problem solving expertise develops and how instruction may facilitate such learning. The aim is to present the current state of research, empirical insights into teaching and learning this practice, and trends in instructional innovations.

The idea that variation exists within a system and the varied population schema described by Talanquer are the theoretical tools for the study by Rodriguez, Hux, Philips, and Towns , which is reported in Chapter 9. The subject of the study is chemical kinetics in biochemistry, and especially of the action and mechanisms of inhibition agents in enzyme catalysis, where a sophisticated understanding requires students to learn to reason using probability-based reasoning.

In Chapter 10, Phelps, Hawkins and Hunter consider the purpose of the academic chemistry laboratory, with emphasis on the practice of problem solving skills beyond those of an algorithmic mathematical nature. The purpose represents a departure from the procedural skills training often associated with the reason we engage in laboratory work (learning to titrate for example). While technical skills are of course important, if part of what we are doing in undergraduate chemistry courses is to prepare students to go on to undertake research, somewhere in the curriculum there should be opportunities to practice solving problems that are both open-ended and laboratory-based. The history of academic chemistry laboratory practice is reviewed and its current state considered.

Chapter 11 by Broman focuses on chemistry problems and problem solving by employing context-based learning approaches, where open-ended problems focusing on higher-order thinking are explored. Chemistry teachers suggested contexts that they thought their students would find interesting and relevant, e.g. , chocolate, doping, and dietary supplements. The chapter analyses students’ interviews after they worked with the problems and discusses how to enhance student interest and perceived relevance in chemistry, and how students’ learning can be improved.

Team Based Learning (TBL) is the theme of Chapter 12 by Capel, Hancock, Howe, Jones, Phillips , and Plana . TBL is a structured small group collaborative form of learning, where learners are required to prepare for sessions in advance, then discuss and debate potential solutions to problems with their peers. It has been found to be highly effective at facilitating active learning. The authors describe their experience with embedding TBL into their chemistry curricula at all levels, including a transnational degree program with a Chinese university.

The ability of students to learn and value aspects of the chemistry curriculum that delve into the molecular basis of chemical events relies on the use of models/molecular representations, and enhanced awareness of how these models connect to chemical observations. Molecular representations in chemistry is the topic of Chapter 13 by Polifka, Baluyut and Holme , which focuses on technology solutions that enhance student understanding and learning of these conceptual aspects of chemistry.

In Chapter 14, Limniou, Papadopoulos, Gavril, Touni , and Chatziapostolidou present an IR spectra simulation. The software includes a wide range of chemical compounds supported by real IR spectra, allowing students to learn how to interpret an IR spectrum, via a step by step process. The chapter includes a report on a pilot trial with a small-scale face-to-face learning environment. The software is available on the Internet for everyone to download and use.

In Chapter 15, Sigalas explores chemistry problems with computational quantum chemistry tools in the undergraduate chemistry curriculum, the use of computational chemistry for the study of chemical phenomena, and the prediction and interpretation of experimental data from thermodynamics and isomerism to reaction mechanisms and spectroscopy. The pros and cons of a series of software tools for building molecular models, preparation of input data for standard software, and visualization of computational results are discussed.

In Chapter 16, Stamovlasis and Vaiopoulou address methodological and epistemological issues concerning research in chemistry problem solving. Following a short review of the relevant literature with emphasis on methodology and the statistical modeling used, the weak points of the traditional approaches are discussed and a novel epistemological framework based on complex dynamical system theory is described. Notably, research using catastrophe theory provides empirical evidence for these phenomena by modeling and explaining mental overload effects and students’ failures. Examples of the application of this theory to chemistry problem solving is reviewed.

Chapter 17 provides extended summaries of the chapters, including a commentary on the chapters. The chapter also provides a brief coverage of various important issues and topics related to chemistry problem solving that are not covered by other chapters in the book.

Finally, in Chapter 18, a Postscript address two specific problem solving issues: (a) the potential synergy between higher and lower-order thinking skills (HOTS and LOTS,) and (b) When problem solving might descend to chaos dynamics. The synergy between HOTS and LOTS is demonstrated by looking at the contribution of chemistry and biochemistry to overcoming the current coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. One the other hand, chaos theory provides an analogy with the time span of the predictive power of problem solving models.

«Ἀρχὴ παιδεύσεως ἡ τῶν ὀνομάτων ἐπίσκεψις» (Archē paedeuseōs hē tōn onomatōn episkepsis). By Antisthenes (ancient Greek philosopher), translated by W. A. Oldfather (1925).

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Every person who desires to study chemistry thoroughly and develop serious and useful knowledge of this subject from time to time requires access to helpful web resources. Resources that will help as a roadmap for their academic career. We will go through the list of them in this post and look through the advantages of these websites.

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When you need to calculate molar mass or to balance a chemical equation, you can count on the chemistry problem solver to help you out. This tool is quite comprehensive. It is useful for any student regardless of the type and level of the chemistry course which he or she is taking. If you find things difficult to understand, the problem solver will help you with the learning process. If you are experienced and skilled, it will allow you to save a massive amount of time while doing your homework. The tool is quite intuitive and very easy to use.

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There are some websites that have hired the services of the best available talent in the subject of chemistry. These experts remain at the disposal of the website and answer the questions posted by registered students at a short notice. You need to make sure from the reviews of these websites about the efficiency of the chemistry homework solver. Many websites claim to have cracked questions from hundreds of textbooks in chemistry. You need to shortlist a company with the best feedback from the students. If you do some research before finalizing the online help, you will never have to worry ‘how to do my chemistry homework’ at home without assign for help from parents and siblings.

Organic chemistry is like hell on earth. I can’t make my brain work properly when I open the class book. Thank you all the people who’ve developed these tools and made my life easier.

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Pls solve this for me and give me the answer immediately Zinc reacts with HCL to form ZNCL balance the equation

What mass of zinc would be needed to give 100g of hydrogen (ZN=65,h=1)

the relative rate of diffusion of a gas as compared with oxygen is 2:1. calculate the relative molecular mass of the gas

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(a) The number of collisions

(b) The rate of the reaction

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Whether you are stuck with math, physics, or chemistry problems, help you to solve and learn them effortlessly. We will give step-by-step explanation for the problems, allowing you to grasp the underlying principles and excel in your studies effortlessly. We can explain all levels of math, physics, and chemistry, from elementary school to college-level problems.

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