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164 Phrases and words You Should Never Use in an Essay—and the Powerful Alternatives you Should

This list of words you should never use in an essay will help you write compelling, succinct, and effective essays that impress your professor.

Words and phrases you shouldn't use in an essay

Writing an essay can be a time-consuming and laborious process that seems to take forever.

But how often do you put your all into your paper only to achieve a lame grade?

You may be left scratching your head, wondering where it all went wrong.

Chances are, like many students, you were guilty of using words that completely undermined your credibility and the effectiveness of your argument.

Our professional essay editors have seen it time and time again: The use of commonplace, seemingly innocent, words and phrases that weaken the power of essays and turn the reader off.

But can changing a few words here and there really make the difference to your grades?

Absolutely.

If you’re serious about improving your essay scores, you must ensure you make the most of every single word and phrase you use in your paper and avoid any that rob your essay of its power (check out our guide to editing an essay for more details).

Here is our list of words and phrases you should ditch together with some alternatives will be so much more impressive.

Vague and Weak Words

What are vague words and phrases.

Ambiguity pun

Vague language consists of words and phrases that aren’t exact or precise. They can be interpreted in multiple ways and, as such, can confuse the reader.

Essays that contain vague language lack substance and are typically devoid of any concrete language. As such, you should keep your eyes peeled for unclear words when proofreading your essay .

Why You Shouldn’t Use VAGUE Words in Essays

Professors detest vagueness.

In addition to being ambiguous, vague words and phrases can render a good piece of research absolutely useless.

Let’s say you have researched the link between drinking soda and obesity. You present the findings of your literature review as follows:

“Existing studies have found that drinking soda leads to weight gain.”

Your professor will ask:

What research specifically? What/who did it involve? Chimpanzees? Children? OAPs? Who conducted the research? What source have you used?

And the pat on the back you deserve for researching the topic will never transpire.

Academic essays should present the facts in a straightforward, unambiguous manner that leaves no doubt in the mind of the reader.

Key takeaway: Be very specific in terms of what happened, when, where, and to whom.

VAGUE Words and Phrases You Shouldn’t Use in an Essay

Flabby words and expressions, what are flabby expressions.

Unnecessary words pun

Flabby expressions and words are wasted phrases. They don’t add any value to your writing but do take up the word count and the reader’s headspace.

Flabby expressions frequently contain clichéd, misused words that don’t communicate anything specific to the reader. For example, if someone asks you how you are feeling and you reply, “I’m fine,” you’re using a flabby expression that leaves the inquirer none the wiser as to how you truly are.

Why Should Flabby Words be Removed from an Essay?

Flabby words are fine in everyday conversation and even blog posts like this.

However, they are enemies of clear and direct essays. They slow down the pace and dilute the argument.

When grading your essay, your professor wants to see the primary information communicated clearly and succinctly.

Removing the examples of flabby words and expressions listed below from your paper will automatically help you to take your essay to a higher level.

Key takeaway: When it comes to essays, brevity is best.

Flabby Words and Expressions You Shouldn’t Use in an Essay

Words to avoid in an essay: redundant words, what are redundant words.

Redundant words in essays pun

Redundant words and phrases don’t serve any purpose.

In this context, redundant means unnecessary.

Many everyday phrases contain redundant vocabulary; for example, add up, as a matter of fact, current trend, etc.

We have become so accustomed to using them in everyday speech that we don’t stop to question their place in formal writing.

Why You Shouldn’t Use Redundant Words in Essays

Redundant words suck the life out of your essay.

They can be great for adding emphasis in a conversational blog article like this, but there is no place for them in formal academic writing.

Redundant words should be avoided for three main reasons:

  • They interrupt the flow of the essay and unnecessarily distract the reader.
  • They can undermine the main point you are trying to make in your paper.
  • They can make you look uneducated.

The most effective essays are those that are concise, meaningful, and astute. If you use words and phrases that carry no meaning, you’ll lose the reader and undermine your credibility.

Key takeaway: Remove any words that don’t serve a purpose.

Redundant Words and Phrases You Shouldn’t Use in an Essay

Colloquial expressions and grammar expletives, what are colloquial expressions.

Colloquial play on words

A colloquial expression is best described as a phrase that replicates the way one would speak.

The use of colloquial language represents an informal, slang style of English that is not suitable for formal and academic documents.

For example:

Colloquial language: “The findings of the study appear to be above board.”

Suitable academic alternative: “The findings of the study are legitimate.”

What are Grammar Expletives?

Grammar expletives are sentences that start with  here ,  there,  or  it .

We frequently use constructions like these when communicating in both spoken and written language.

But did you know they have a distinct grammatical classification?

They do; the expletive.

Grammar expletives (not to be confused with cuss words) are used to introduce clauses and delay the subject of the sentence. However, unlike verbs and nouns, which play a specific role in expression, expletives do not add any tangible meaning. Rather, they act as filler words that enable the writer to shift the emphasis of the argument. As such, grammar expletives are frequently referred to as “empty words.”

Removing them from your writing can help to make it tighter and more succinct. For example:

Sentence with expletive there : There are numerous reasons why it was important to write this essay. Sentence without expletive: It was important to write this essay for numerous reasons.

Why Should Colloquial Expressions and Grammar Expletives be Removed from an Essay?

While colloquial expressions and grammar expletives are commonplace in everyday speech and are completely acceptable in informal emails and chatroom exchanges, they can significantly reduce the quality of formal essays.

Essays and other academic papers represent formal documents. Frequent use of slang and colloquial expressions will undermine your credibility, make your writing unclear, and confuse the reader. In addition, they do not provide the exactness required in an academic setting.

Make sure you screen your essay for any type of conversational language; for example, figures of speech, idioms, and clichés.

Key takeaway: Grammar expletives use unnecessary words and make your word count higher while making your prose weaker.

Words and Phrases You Shouldn’t Use in an Essay

Nominalization, what is normalization.

Normalization: Do alligators alligate?

A normalized sentence is one that is structured such that the abstract nouns do the talking.

For example, a noun, such as solution , can be structured to exploit its hidden verb, solve .

The act of transforming a word from a verb into a noun is known as normalization.

Should normalization be Removed from an Essay?

This is no universal agreement as to whether normalization should be removed from an essay. Some scholars argue that normalization is important in scientific and technical writing because abstract prose is more objective. Others highlight how normalizations can make essays more difficult to understand .

The truth is this: In the majority of essays, it isn’t possible to present an entirely objective communication; an element of persuasion is inherently incorporated. Furthermore, even the most objective academic paper will be devoid of meaning unless your professor can read it and make sense of it. As such, readability is more important than normalization.

You will need to take a pragmatic approach, but most of the time, your writing will be clearer and more direct if you rely on verbs as opposed to abstract nouns that were formed from verbs. As such, where possible, you should revise your sentences to make the verbs do the majority of the work.

For example,

Use: “This essay analyses and solves the pollution problem.”

Not: “This essay presents an evaluation of the pollution issue and presents a solution.”

While normalized sentences are grammatically sound, they can be vague.

In addition, humans tend to prefer vivid descriptions, and verbs are more vivid, informative, and powerful than nouns.

Key takeaway: Normalization can serve a purpose, but only use it if that purpose is clear.

normalization You Shouldn’t Use in an Essay

That’s a lot to take in.

You may be wondering why care?

Cutting the fat helps you present more ideas and a deeper analysis.

Don’t be tempted to write an essay that is stuffed with pompous, complex language: It is possible to be smart and simple.

Bookmark this list now and return to it when you are editing your essays. Keep an eye out for the words you shouldn’t use in an essay, and you’ll write academic papers that are more concise, powerful, and readable.

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Avoid These Words and Phrases in Your Academic Writing

WriteOn

When writing an academic essay, thesis, or dissertation, your professor or advisor usually gives you a rubric with detailed expectations to guide you during the process. While the rubric will identify the major requirements for the paper, it will probably not tell you what words or phrases you need to avoid. Whether you want to earn a stellar grade on your next paper or you're hoping to get published in an academic journal, keep reading to discover words and phrases you need to avoid in your academic writing.

"A great deal of"

I encounter the phrase a great deal of in most academic papers that I edit. Avoid using this vague phrase, because your academic writing should be specific and informative. Instead of saying a great deal of, provide exact measurements or specific quantities.

"A lot"

Similar to the previous phrase (a great deal of), a lot is too vague and informal for an academic paper. Use precise quantities instead of this overly general phrase.

"Always"

Avoid using the word always in your academic writing, because it can generalize a statement and convey an absolute that might not be accurate. If you want to state something about all the participants in your study, use specific language to clarify that the statement applies to a consistent action among the participants in your study.

It is almost a cliché to tell you to avoid clichés, but it is an essential piece of writing advice. Clichés are unoriginal and will weaken your writing. In academic writing, using clichés will erode your credibility and take away from all the research and hard work you have put into your project.

What qualifies as a cliché? According to Dictionary.com , A cliché is an expression, idea, or action that has been overused to the point of seeming worn out, stale, ineffective, or meaningless. Your words should be original, carry meaning, and resonate with your readers, and this is especially important for academic writing. Most clichés have been used so frequently in so many different contexts that they have lost their meaning. To eliminate clichés, scan your paper for any phrases that you could type into an internet browser and find millions of search results from all different topic areas. If you are unsure if your favorite phrases are overused clichés, consult this Cliché List for a comprehensive list.

Contractions

Academic writing should be formal and professional, so refrain from using contractions. Dictionary.com offers the following advice regarding contractions: Contractions such as isn't, couldn't, can't, weren't, he'll, they're occur chiefly, although not exclusively, in informal speech and writing. They are common in personal letters, business letters, journalism, and fiction; they are rare in scientific and scholarly writing. Contractions occur in formal writing mainly as representations of speech. When you proofread your paper, change any contractions back to the original formal words.

Double negatives

Double negatives will confuse your readers and dilute the power of your words. For example, consider the following sentence:

"He was not unwilling to participate in the study."

The word not and the prefix un- are both negatives, so they cancel each other out and change the meaning of the sentence. If you want to convey that someone reluctantly participated in the study, express that clearly and explicitly.

"Etc."

The abbreviation etc. is short for the Latin word et cetera , which means and others; and so forth; and so on. Dictionary.com specifies that etc. is used to indicate that more of the same sort or class might have been mentioned, but for brevity have been omitted. I discourage writers from using etc. in academic writing, because if you are writing an academic paper, you are writing to share information or scholarly research, and you are not conveying any new information with the abbreviation etc. Instead of writing etc., explicitly state the words or list that you are alluding to with your use of etc. If you absolutely must use etc. , make sure you only use it if readers can easily identify what etc. represents, and only use etc. at the end of lists that are within parentheses.

"For all intents and purposes" and "for all intensive purposes"

These two phrases are often used interchangeably, but you should avoid both of them in your academic writing. Avoid the second phrase in all of your writing: For all intensive purposes is an eggcorn (a word or phrase that is mistakenly used for another word or phrase because it sounds similar). For all intents and purposes is generally a filler phrase that does not provide any new information, so you can usually omit it without replacing it.

An idiom is an expression whose meaning is not predictable from the usual meanings of its constituent elements. Idioms include phrases such as he kicked the bucket, and they are particularly problematic in academic writing, because non-native English speakers might not understand your intended meaning. Below are three of the idioms I encounter most frequently when editing academic papers:

  • All things being equal : All things being equal is usually an unnecessary or redundant phrase that you can simply omit without replacing with anything else.
  • In a nutshell : Instead of saying in a nutshell, use a more universal phrase such as in summary or in conclusion.
  • On the other hand : Idioms such as on the other hand are informal and will weaken your paper. Instead of writing the phrase on the other hand, consider using conversely.

In-text ampersands ("&")

Do not use ampersands in place of the word and in sentences. Most style guides dictate that you use an ampersand for parenthetical in-text citations, but you need to spell out the word and in your paper. An ampersand within the text of your paper is too informal for an academic paper.

"I think"

You do not need to include the phrase I think when explaining your point of view. This is your paper, and it should contain your original thoughts or findings, so it is redundant to include the phrase I think. Doing so will weaken your writing and your overall argument.

"Never"

Similar to the word " always, " avoid using the word never in your academic writing. Always and never will overgeneralize your statements. If you absolutely must use never in your academic writing, make sure that you specify that it applies only to the participants in your study and should not be applied to the general population.

"Normal"

Avoid using subjective terms such a normal in your academic papers. Instead, use scientific or academic terms such as control group or standard. Remember that what you consider normal might be abnormal to someone else, but a control group or standard should be objective and definable.

Passive voice

Passive voice is one of the most frequent issues that I correct when editing academic papers. Some students think passive voice provides a more formal tone, but it actually creates more confusion for your readers while also adding to your word count. As the UNC Writing Center explained , The primary reason why your instructors frown on the passive voice is that they often have to guess what you mean. Most style guidelines (APA, MLA, Chicago) also specify that writers should avoid passive sentences. Whether you're writing your first draft or proofreading for what feels like the hundredth time, you can change passive sentences by making sure that the subject of your sentence is performing the action.

One way to look out for passive voice is to pay attention anytime you use by or was. These two words do not always indicate passive voice, but if you pay attention, they can help you spot passive voice. For example, the following sentence uses passive voice:

"The study was conducted in 2021."

If your style guideline allows you to use personal pronouns, specify a subject and reword the sentence to say:

"We conducted the study in 2021."

If your style guideline dictates that you avoid personal pronouns, you can make the sentence active by saying:

"The researchers conducted the study in 2021."

There are exceptions to most writing tips, but not this one: You should never use profanity in your academic writing. Profanity is informal, and many people might find it offensive, crude, or rude. Even if you enjoy creating controversy or getting a rise out of your readers, avoid profane words that might offend professors or other readers.

Academic writing can feel overwhelming, but hopefully this list of words and phrases to avoid in academic writing will help you as you navigate your next big assignment. Although there are exceptions to some items on this list, you will grow as a writer if you learn to avoid these words and phrases. If you consult your professor or advisor's rubric, adhere to style guidelines, and avoid the words or phrases on this list, you might even have fun the next time you have to stay up all night to finish an academic paper.

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What is Formal Academic Writing: 104 Words to Use and Avoid

Stefani H.

Table of contents

For an author to tell his readers a story, picking the right word and phrases to include in his manuscript is pivotal. Similarly, using formal and professional words, sentences, and tone while writing your academic writing assignments is equally important.

To have an academic tone, express your ideas clearly, and make it easier for your readers to understand the concepts behind your arguments and points, a carefully segregated and strong word choice is ideal for success.

In this article, we’ll share a list of words you should use and ones you should avoid at all costs.

51 Formal Academic Writing Words to Use

While it is necessary to make sense of your writing, it is also advised to identify what sounds best for your assignment and be able to communicate arguments, ideas, and opinions with your target audience, cohesively and concisely.

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Let’s now understand the five categories of words and phrases that are appropriate and advisable to use in your formal academic writing assessments:

1. For the introduction

The most important and trickiest part of your academic writing is the introduction – the first portion of your essay that your readers will read, so it needs to have a catchy hook to grab the attention of your readers and summarise your topic and thesis statement in layman’s terms, all in one paragraph.

To not seem casual in your writing, as well as score high grades on your formal paper, the usage of appropriate words for your introduction paragraph is crucial. Here are some words you can consider:

  • Considering;
  • In view of;
  • In light of;
  • On the second hand;
  • Referring to the views of X;
  • According to X.

2. To add more information and clarity

The structure, clarity, and flow of your paper are very important. You would want your readers to understand each paragraph, connect the entire paper, and draw up an analysis without any difficulties.

Knowing how to write and add new information to your academic paper with smooth transitions from each paragraph to the other is a skill that is paramount amongst students who are crafting their formal assignments.

  • Furthermore;
  • In addition to;
  • Additionally;
  • On top of that;
  • In order to;
  • To this end;
  • In contemplation of;
  • In other words;
  • To put it another way;
  • To clarify;
  • To simplify;
  • Comparably;
  • In parallel to.

3. To compare and contrast

Most of the time, formal academic writing assignments have differences of opinions to prove an argument, so it's very important to show all sides of an opinion with relevant research and sources.

To show your knowledge of a particular subject, you have to demonstrate your ideas with facts, research and examples. Here are a few ways you can introduce compare and contrast arguments:

  • Alternatively;
  • On the contrary;
  • On the other hand;
  • By contrast;
  • As compared to;
  • Nonetheless;
  • Despite this;
  • In spite of;
  • Importantly.

4. To give examples

Every high-scored academic paper has to include examples. This makes your argument stronger, more plausible and can help simplify an explanation or bring clarity to an argument for your reader.

The term ‘for example’’ is the most commonly used phrase that is used to illustrate examples, but it's always good practice to avoid repeating the same words for a quality read.

  • For instance;
  • To demonstrate;
  • As evidence;
  • To illustrate;
  • To exemplify.

5. To summarise your essay

Lastly, concluding words are pivotal for using in your academic paper to summarise all your arguments, points, and ideas. Each portion of this paragraph requires an appropriate term to clarify the meaning and purpose of the argument.

There are terms to introduce your conclusion, emphasize the relevant argument, and shed attention to important points. That’s why the final paragraph with your core argument that ties up your entire academic paper together should be explained through the following terms:

  • To summarise;
  • In conclusion;
  • To conclude;
  • In closing;
  • For this reason;

53 Formal Academic Writing Words to Avoid

Apart from knowing which words to use, it’s also important to know the words you must avoid to submit a stellar paper.

Here are the seven categories of words and expressions you should avoid at all costs to gain higher scores on your writing assignments.

1. Informal

Every academic writing needs to be written in formal language with the usage of appropriate words. Informal language in your assignments would make your paper seem casual and immature. Usually, these forms of writing also need to be a lot more formal than our everyday speech.

The following words below are considered to be too informal to be included in your academic papers:

  • A couple of;
  • You, your, me, my, us, we (second-person pronouns);
  • Starting sentences with ‘also’, ‘because’, ‘and’, ‘so’.

Using vague words and sentences should be best avoided. To get across clearly and precisely, use specific terms so that the presentation of the academic writing leaves no doubts in anybody’s mind.

Here are some vague words to avoid using in your essays, dissertations, or projects:

  • Big, mall, short, tall;
  • A long time, a while ago, at that time;
  • Things, stuff, objects.

Oft-repeated and overused expressions can prove to be quite ineffectual in formal writing. Cliches rob an assignment or project of its original worth and erode its credibility.

Take a look at some of the frequently used and bland cliches that would only bring unoriginality to your paper:

  • Cream of the top;
  • In today’s society;
  • In this day and age;
  • At the end of the day;
  • A level playing field;
  • At this moment in time;
  • When all is said and done;
  • Throughout history;
  • Last but not the least;
  • Agree to disagree.

4. Abbreviations

Shortened forms of words and phrases should be abjured in writing academic papers. This then brings down the entire gravity and professionalism of your essay.

Imagine crafting a perfect academic assignment only to get a low grade due to unnecessary and easily avoidable abbreviations:

  • Isn’t, wouldn't, couldn't, they’re, won’t, can’t, weren't;
  • ASAP, BRB, Apps, IT, comp., TV;
  • Mgmt. dept., info., grad, PVT;
  • ASAP, TBA, ATM.

5. Complex words

Try to use simple and layman's terms instead of resorting to peppering the assignment with complex words.

Using technical and complex terms will make it difficult for your readers to comprehend your ideas and content. This will, in turn result in you receiving negative feedback for your work.

Here are a few complex words for your reference:

  • Humongous instead of large;
  • Equitable instead of fair;
  • Adjacent to instead of next to;
  • Accomplished instead of carrying out or do;
  • With reference to instead of about;
  • In a timely manner instead of on-time;
  • Effect modifications instead of making changes;
  • Promulgate instead of issue or publish.

6. Exaggeration

Formal academic writing is direct and not ornamental. Hence, exaggerations are best avoided. They may also be lacking in accuracy which could make your assignment lose its authenticity – this then leads to lower grades.

Keep in mind to remove your focus from including exaggerated expressions in your formal writing, such as:

  • Always, never, forever;
  • Extremely, really, very, must, surely;
  • Perfect, best, worst;
  • Literally, completely, absolutely, entirely;
  • Obviously, of course, undoubtedly.

It's always advisable to use formal words in a conversational tone for your academic assignments. Slangs are best avoided in this aspect because using casual and colloquial expressions can bring down your writing scores drastically.

The following slang and colloquialisms should be best avoided to score a perfect grade on your formal academic assessments:

  • Ripped off;
  • Off the hook;
  • Check it out;

Key takeaway

Now, as you start to pen your thoughts and ideas to paper for your formal academic paper, you not only know what words and sentences to avoid that’ll make your efforts go down the drain, but you also know the appropriate, formal, and academic words to use in your writing assessments for scoring high grades.

As word choice is important, writing a flawless academic paper using the list above as your reference will do wonders for your vocabulary, writing style, knowledge, and sentence structure.

If you need help with your academic essays, Writers Per Hour would be glad to help. Our expert writers know exactly the right words to use so you’re able to submit professionally-written papers that are sure to impress.

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Words to avoid in academic writing.

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“Very” creates an overstatement. Take the sentence, “She was very radiant.” Radiant is a powerful word already. Let it do its work alone without adding extra emphasis.

Words to use instead: genuinely, veritably, undoubtedly, profoundly, indubitably.

2. Of course

A reader is often unfamiliar with the material you are presenting. If you use of course , the reader may believe they are not smart enough or feel you are not explaining your material well enough. Simply present your case without fluff-language. If you feel you have to use “of course,” use the words below:

Words to use instead: clearly, definitely, indeed, naturally, surely.

It seems when we do not know how to describe an object or phenomena, we use “thing.” Writing, especially in the academic realm, is about being specific. Using “thing” does not provide any specificity whatsoever.

What to write instead: Discuss your subject directly. For instance:

“I loved the thing she did,” could be changed to, “I loved her salsa dancing on Friday nights by Makelmore Harbor.”

Do you know of a person, place, or phenomena that “always” does an action? “Always” is almost always not true.

What to write instead: Consider how often your subject does an action. Say someone at your work is consistently late, but is on time occasionally. Some people might write, “He is always late to work.” As an alternative, you could write, “He is late to work most of the time.” If you are writing a serious paper, consider going further and give exact numbers, such as, “He is late to work 88.6% of the time in the mornings, during the months of September, August, and May.”

Similar to “always,” do you know of any person, place, or object that “never” does a certain action?

What to write instead: Let us look at this sentence: “Maggie never lost her temper because she was a good girl.” A better way to approach this sentence would be to say, “Maggie rarely lost her temper, as she was brought up in believing that displaying her anger was the worst form of human expression.”

6. (Contractions) Can’t, won’t, you’ve…

When you are writing an essay, a research paper, or a review, you are presenting yourself as an expert or professional that wants to send your message across to an audience. Most readers are not wanting to be written to in a casual way. They expect we respect them and that respect is in the form of the language we use. Contractions show we are either lazy or are talking to a lower-level audience.

Instead of writing contractions, simply use the original form of the word.

Akin to “very,” it is not necessary to use and is a form of overstatement.

Words to use instead: extremely, remarkably, unusually, consequently, accurate.

Using “a lot” refers to a quantity, but it does not tell the reader how much exactly. Keep the idea of specificity in your mind when you write. It is better to state the exact amount or at least hand over an educated guess.

What to write instead:

Here is an incorrect sentence first: “I ate a lot of ice cream this morning.” The correct version: “I ate two dinner-sized bowls of ice cream this morning.”

It does not give an appropriate description of a subject. It is recommended to be more specific.

Words to use instead: commendable, reputable, satisfactory, honorable, pleasing.

What does “stuff” mean, anyways?

Words to use instead: belongings, gear, goods, possessions, substance.

This word is vague. It generally means “satisfactory,” but a reader cannot be entirely sure.

Words to use instead: admirable, cordial, favorable, genial, obliging.

A hollow word that does not add much value.

Words to use instead: precisely, assuredly, veritably, distinctly, unequivocally.

Sometimes, writers stamp “many” down on a page without realizing that it means almost nothing to a reader. If you want your audience to know about a quantity, why not state its specifics? But if you cannot provide the details, try these:

Words to use instead: copious, bountiful, myriad, prevalent, manifold.

14. In conclusion

Your readers know it is your conclusion by being the last paragraph(s) and that you are summarizing. There is no reason to state it is your conclusion.

What to write instead: Exclude cookie cutter phrases. Go straight to your summary and afterthought.

15. Firstly, secondly, thirdly…

Your readers knows where your first, second, and third body paragraphs are because they can count. You do not need to state the obvious.

What to write instead: Lead into your body paragraphs by beginning with a topic sentence that follows the concepts outlined in your thesis statement.

16. Finally/lastly

Your readers can see it is your ending point by being the last section in your paragraph(s). And even if the placement of your final point is not clear, there is no real reason to state that it is the last topic.

What to write instead: Write your transitions naturally, without plastic, pre-made phrases. Relate your transitions to the content that was before it.

17. Anything

“Anything” could be, well, “anything.” Specifics, specifics, specifics.

What to write instead: The common phrase, “It can be anything,” can be broken down into details that relate to your composition. Say you are writing about topics for poetry. Instead of stating that, “Poetry can be written about anything,” why not list some possibilities: “Your loneliness in a new city, a recent divorce, how an insect flies through wind filled with tree fluff, your disgust of politics in Buenos Aires, how you wished you could transform into a clock: all these topics and more are valid when writing poetry.”

18. Kind of

A casual version of saying:

“type of” “in the category of” “within the parameters of”

19. Find out

Imagine you are Sherlock Holmes. I bet when you finished a case, you would not say, “I found out the reason that….” No, you would be stately and expound, “I have examined , investigated, interrogated, discovered, realized that Mr. Shuman was tied counter-clockwise to the rope that was set by the food agency’s mole to convert a missionary to blasphemy.”

20. Various/variety

The fathers of ambiguity, these words does not relate to any concrete object, person, or phenomena. It is best to list the “various” or a “variety” of objects, people, or places you are examining in your piece of writing. But if you cannot come up with a proper list, you can insert one of the following words in place of various or variety :

What to write instead: discrete, disparate, diverse, multifarious, divergent.

Similarly, if you see any of these words in a paper, most likely it wasn’t written by a professional. Such works are better not to be trusted as reliable sources. Even the best essay writing services prove that knowledgeable writers avoid these constructions when completing tasks.

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words you should not use in a research paper

Princeton Correspondents on Undergraduate Research

Do’s and Don’ts for Research Writing

Don't let bad grammar plague your writing!

In the thick of doing research, it’s easy to forget about the ultimate goal of writing and publishing. Thankfully, about once a month, the Princeton University Laser Sensing Lab holds what we call a “literature review”: Everyone brings in papers they’ve come across for their own research, and shares techniques that could be useful for the group at large.

At our last meeting, someone changed things up. Instead of bringing in a paper that contained interesting ideas, he brought one that he declared “the worst paper I’ve ever read”.

We all had a good laugh as the paper was passed around. He was right. The paper had numerous grammatical mistakes and many passages were indecipherable. But my adviser suggested that we not take it lightly. After all, this paper had somehow been published (though if he had any say in it, he would have it retracted). It served as a good example of what not to do—especially as the writing season falls upon us (hello to senior theses and final papers!).

As you write, here are other do’s and dont’s to keep in mind:

1. Don’t blow off grammar. Grammar mistakes look very unprofessional and immediately sink your standing in the eyes of your readers. The most common example? Its vs. it’s. Not only is this typo rampant in papers, but also in emails and online articles. Other examples I’ve come across: “development activities are currently been carried out ”, “in motion along our line of site ”… the list goes on. Don’t worry—we all make these typos when writing, and they’re easy to miss. I often don’t find my mistakes until I ask someone else to read over my work. But correcting grammar is a very simple fix, and can go a long way to help clean up your writing.

2. Don’t make excuses for poor writing. “Scientists aren’t known for being good writers, so it’s ok if my writing isn’t good either.” “This paper doesn’t count for much anyway, so it’s ok if it doesn’t make sense.” Yes, it’s tempting. But you don’t want to get into a habit of poor writing. And would you really want to be the TA or professor on the other end, reading a nonsensical paper?

3. Write something you would want to read. It sounds obvious, but it’s one of the most often ignored adages. Do you really need all that jargon up front? Are you giving your target audience, whether it’s fellow students or scientists, enough information to understand your writing? After you write your piece, the last thing you might feel like doing is reading it over again. But if you’re really aiming for a good paper, you should finish your draft with enough time—at least a day if possible—  before re-reading, to make sure your logical progressions are natural. And another round of proofreading is a great way to catch those rogue typos!

4. Have others check over your writing. If you can’t bring yourself to read your own writing, or can’t distance yourself enough to think about what may or may not make sense, have someone proofread for you. Even if you’ve read over your own paper, you might not be able to catch confusing or illogical wording — after all, you’re the one who wrote it. But having another person’s eyes on your paper can provide an important sanity check. The Writing Center is great for this, but if you want more tailored feedback, asking for help from a graduate student in your lab is not a bad idea, either!

And finally, do your research! Take note of papers you’ve found helpful in your literature review. What kind of language do they use? Is there anything confusing they’ve done that you think you can do better? Do try and actually read some of the papers you’re citing. After all, reading good writing will make you a better writer yourself.

–Stacey Huang, Engineering Correspondent

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words you should not use in a research paper

Enago Academy

Writing a Good Research Title: Things to Avoid

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When writing manuscripts , too many scholars neglect the research title. This phrase, along with the abstract, is what people will mostly see and read online. Title research of publications shows that the research paper title does matter a lot . Both bibliometrics and altmetrics tracking of citations are now, for better or worse, used to gauge a paper’s “success” for its author(s) and the journal publishing it. Interesting research topics coupled with good or clever yet accurate research titles can draw more attention to your work from peers and the public alike.

It would be helpful to have a list of what should never go into the title of a journal article. With this “don’ts” list, authors could have a handy tool to maximize the impact of their research. Titles for research manuscripts need not be complex. It can even have style. They can state the main result or idea of the paper (i.e., declarative). Alternatively, they can indicate the subject covered by the paper (i.e., descriptive). A third form, which should be used sparingly, conveys the research in the form of an open question.

A Handy List of Don’ts

  • The period generally has no place in a title (even a declarative phrase can work without a period)
  • Likewise, any kind of dashes to separates title parts (however, hyphens to link words is fine)
  • Chemical formula, like H 2 O, CH 4 , etc. (instead use their common or generic names)
  • Avoid roman numerals (e.g., III, IX, etc.)
  • Semi-colons, as in “;” (the colon, however, is very useful to make two-part titles)
  • The taxonomic hierarchy of species of plants, animals, fungi, etc. is not needed
  • Abbreviations (except for RNA, DNA which is standard now and widely known)
  • Initialisms and acronyms (e.g., “Ca” may get confused with CA, which denotes cancer)
  • Avoid question marks (this tends to decrease citations, but posing a question is useful in economics and philosophy papers or when the results are not so clear-cut as hoped for)
  • Uncommon words (a few are okay, but too many can influence altmetric scoring)
  • Numerical exponents, or units (e.g. km -1 or km/hr)
  • Vague terms (e.g., “with” could be re-written with a more specific verb; “amongst” rectified by simpler word ordering)
  • Cryptic/complex drug names (use the generic name if allowed to)
  • Obvious or non-specific openings with a conjunction: e.g., “Report on”, “A Study of”, “Results of”, “An Experimental Investigation of”, etc. (these don’t contribute meaning!)
  • Italics, unless it is used for the species names of studied organisms
  • Shorten scientific names (not coli , but write instead Escherichia coli )
  • Keep it short. Aim for 50 to 100 characters, but not more (shorter titles are cited more often) or less than 13 words
Related: Finished preparing your manuscript? Check out this post now for additional points to consider submitting your manuscript!

Use the List

Take some time out to look at a good research title example. It could be one that you liked or a recognized collection of best research titles. Discuss these with your colleagues and co-authors. Write several title drafts in various forms, either in the declarative or descriptive form, with or without a colon. Then use the list above as a guide to polish and winnow your sample research title down to an effective title for your manuscript.

A great title should interest the reader enough to make him/her want to download your paper and actually read it. Importantly, in selecting the words, aim to both pique the reader’s curiosity and sum up the research work done. Bear mind, too, that a good title should also ensure your publication is easily found. This is now crucial for digital indexing and archiving purposes.

words you should not use in a research paper

Research Titles in the 21 st Century

Remember, a good research paper title is now essential. However, it is no substitute for good quality science and scholarship. Exaggerated or sensational titles, especially those that make unwarranted generalizations, may well get more attention from the media. Given the growing use of Twitter and other social media platforms, the research paper title is clearly gaining value and importance. Title research, therefore, is critical to understand what effect a given type or use of a research title has on its readership.

Did you like this post? Will it help you choose a good title for your next report/manuscript? Please share your comments in the section below.

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Good article, but I think that before writing the title and the paper itself, you need to choose a topic for which to write and the topic should be simple and understandable for yourself.

Great post! Helped me in my research project title selection. Sharing it with my fellow classmates as well!

thank you. it helps me to choose my title as well.thanks

very useful and handy article

Yes its so very thankful to guided to me how to created research title

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words you should not use in a research paper

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words you should not use in a research paper

Things to avoid to frame a good research paper title

words you should not use in a research paper

Drafting a good research paper title needs serious thought. Researchers focus so much on their research findings that they tend to forget the important role played by the title of their paper. Though it seems a simple task, in reality the process of choosing a suitable title demands consistent thinking and attention. This step is a critical one because readers will search online and through databases and bibliographies based on the title. Therefore, it is imperative that you have a title that can drive your targeted audience/readers to your research paper. An interesting research topic combined with an accurate title will definitely draw more attention to your work from peers and the public.

There are many pre-set criteria that help researchers write a perfect research paper title. But it would also be helpful to have a list of what should never go into the title of a journal article. The following list can act as a useful reckoner about what to avoid in your research title in order to increase the impact of your research.

A Handy List of Don’ts

  • The period is generally not used in a title (even a declarative phrase can work without a period)
  • Any type of dashes to separate title elements or hyphens to link words is allowed.
  • Chemical formulae should be noted in their generic or common names. For example H2O, CH4, etc should be avoided.
  • The title should not include roman numerals (e.g., III, IX, etc.).
  • Try not to include semi-colons; however, the colon can be used to make two-part titles.
  • The taxonomic hierarchy of species of plants, animals, fungi, etc. is not needed.
  • Abbreviations confuse readers, so they should be avoided (except for RNA, DNA which is standard now and widely known).
  • Initials and acronyms should not be included as they create confusion. (e.g., “Ca” may get confused with CA, which denotes cancer).
  • It’s good to avoid query marks as they probably decrease the number of citations, but a query mark is useful in economics and philosophy papers or when the findings are undecided).
  • Too many offbeat words can influence the Altmetric Attention Score; using common words is better.
  • Avoid using numerical exponents or units (e.g. km-1 or km/hr).
  • Phrases should be direct and factual (e.g., “with” could be rewritten with the more specific verb “amongst”).
  • Complex drug names should be avoided (use the generic name if allowed to).
  • Do not include obvious or non-specific openings with a conjunction (e.g., “Report on,” “A Study of,” “Results of,” “An Experimental Investigation of,” etc. because they don’t contribute any meaning).
  • Italicize only species names of studied organisms.
  • Avoid using shortened scientific names (write Escherichia coli and not coli).
  • Try to wrap the title within 50 to 100 characters as shorter titles are cited more often.

These steps would help a researcher to form an effective and relevant title for their research paper. A title should be interesting predicts the content of the research paper and also reflect the tone of the writing.

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Using Words Properly In Research Writing

Common confusables and how to avoid them

One of the biggest challenges when writing a research paper is making your complicated findings easy to understand. To help your reader understand your message, you have to write clear sentences. Unfortunately, research writing is filled with confusables – words and phrases that are open to misinterpretation – which can get in the way of saying what you mean.

In this blog post, I describe common confusables in research writing and explain how to use them correctly to communicate your meaning clearly.

Not interchangeable

Let’s start by looking at words that are often used interchangeably in research writing, but that mean different things: 

Compose and comprise

Compose means to make up. For example: 

The heart is composed of two ventricles and two aorta (Correct). 

Comprise means including or containing. For example: 

The heart comprises two ventricles and two aorta (Correct). 

A common mistake is using the phrase comprised of instead of composed of . For example: 

The heart is comprised of two ventricles and two aorta  

is incorrect. 

Continual and continuous

Continual means to recur at frequent intervals. Continuous means to go on without interruption. Consider the following two sentences: 

A continuous intravenous infusion of antibiotics was administered for three days after surgery (meaning: the patient was infused with antibiotics for three days without interruption) 

A continual intravenous infusion of antibiotics was administered for three days after surgery (the patient received intermittent infusions of antibiotics for three days). 

Note that if you use continuous instead of continual (or vice versa) in this sentence, you will be giving your reader inaccurate information. 

Consequently and subsequently

These are often confused because they both refer to something that occurs later on, but they have distinct meanings. Consequently means ‘as a result of’ and subsequently means ‘later’. For example: 

The donated organ stopped working shortly after transplantation. Consequently, the patient had to return to regular dialysis treatment . 

Although subsequently is not technically incorrect here (because dialysis treatment began after the kidney transplant failed), dialysis was started because the kidney transplant failed, so consequently communicates the intended meaning more accurately .  

Use subsequently if you want to say that something occurred after something else: 

Cortical neurons were plated in 6-cm petri dishes. Subsequently, the cells were transferred to an incubator and left to settle.  

Here, subsequently is correct because putting the cells in the incubator is the next step in the protocol. Using c onsequently would be misleading because the reader would infer that the cells were transferred to the incubator because they were plated in petri dishes, which is not true. 

Dose and dosage

Dose refers to the amount of a drug given at one time. Dosage refers to the amount and frequency of administration, usually expressed as a quantity per unit of time: 

A 40-mg dose was administered every hour (Correct).

The dosage was 40 mg per hour (Correct). 

Fewer and less

Fewer is an adjective used with countable items (i.e. indicates a number). Less is used with noncountable items (i.e. indicates an amount). For example: 

We recruited less patients to the non-intervention group (Incorrect)

We recruited fewer patients to the non-intervention group (Correct) 

Patients in the non-intervention group received fewer treatment (Incorrect)

Patients in the non-intervention group received less treatment (Correct). 

Also pay attention to amount and number. Use amount when referring to noncount nouns and number when referring to countable nouns: 

A large amount of participants took part in the study (Incorrect)

A large number of participants took part in the study (Correct). 

Imply and infer

To imply means to suggest or indicate something. Infer means to draw firm conclusions based on facts. The speaker or writer always implies and the listener or reader always infers. For example: 

The protocol implies that foetal calf serum should not be added to the cell culture medium

The reader infers that foetal calf serum should not be added to the cell culture medium.  

Risk and harm

A risk is the chance that something hazardous can cause harm. A common error is to use risk to mean harm in research papers. For example: 

There is a risk of radiation exposure during a CT scan  

is nonsense. The patient will definitely be exposed to radiation during a CT scan. But we can talk about the risk of harm after radiation exposure.

Congenital and genetic

Congenital means present at birth; genetic refers to how genes and chromosomes produce phenotypes. A congenital defect does not always have a genetic cause, and a genetic disorder is not always congenital. 

May and might

May is used if there is more than one possible outcome. Might indicates that something could have happened but didn't. Mixing these words up could change the meaning. For example:

The drug might have prevented cardiac failure

suggests that cardiac failure occured and that it could have been prevented if the drug had been administered.

The drug may have prevented cardiac failure

suggests thats cardiac failure was prevented, maybe because the drug was administered.

Correct usage

If you use words incorrectly in your research paper, the journal Editor may question the quality of your scientific content. Here are some common words and phrases that are often misused in research articles:

refers to a process that is stopped prematurely. For example, in reproductive medicine, a pregnancy is aborted, not a foetus or a pregnant woman.

is used to describe a disease that is constantly present in a particular population or region. A common mistake is to use endemic to describe a region, for example:

Parts of Africa are endemic for malaria (Incorrect)

Malaria is endemic in parts of Africa (Correct).

Negative and positive; abnormal and normal

should be used to describe test results, not the test itself.

The CRP blood test was negative (Incorrect)

The CRP blood test results were negative (Correct).

The same is true for abnormal and normal :

The brain scan was normal (Incorrect)

Results of the brain scan were normal (Correct).

Acute and chronic

should be used to describe the duration (acute = short term, chronic = long term) not the severity of symptoms, conditions or diseases. For example:

The patient had chronic heart problems

means that the patient’s heart problems had been going on for a while, not that the heart problems were severe.

A common mistake is to use acute and chronic to describe patients, treatments, or medication. For example:

He was a chronic heroin user (Incorrect)

He was a long-term heroin user (Correct)

The patient received chronic dialysis treatment (Incorrect)

The patient received long-term dialysis treatment (Correct)

Acute administration of epinephrine was required (Incorrect)

Immediate administration of epinephrine was required (Correct).

is a noun or verb that is often mistakenly used as an adjective. For example:

A repeat surgery was performed (Incorrect)

The surgery was repeated (Correct).

Incomparable

Some adjectives cannot logically be quantified or compared, so cannot be used with comparative modifiers like more or less . Here are some examples to watch out for (adding more or less to these adjectives doesn’t make sense):

  • Pregnant: a woman in the final trimester of her pregnancy is not  more pregnant than a woman in the first trimester. Neither is a woman carrying triplets more pregnant than a woman carrying one baby.
  • Comprehensive
  • Preferable.

Avoid misunderstanding

Scientific writing must be precise to avoid misinterpretation. Paying attention to the common confusables described in this article will help you to say exactly what you mean in your next research paper.

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Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts within a community of scholarly experts and practitioners.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020.

Importance of Good Academic Writing

The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable depending on the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

I.  The Big Picture Unlike creative or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.

II.  Tone The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.

III.  Diction Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how that word or phrase is used within a discipline.

IV.  Language The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi- dimensional . Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.'  ["in other words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super," "very," "incredible," "huge," etc.].

V.  Punctuation Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore", "even so," and "for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.

VI.  Academic Conventions Citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes or endnotes is a key feature of academic writing. It is essential to always acknowledge the source of any ideas, research findings, data, paraphrased, or quoted text that you have used in your paper as a defense against allegations of plagiarism. Even more important, the scholarly convention of citing sources allow readers to identify the resources you used in writing your paper so they can independently verify and assess the quality of findings and conclusions based on your review of the literature. Examples of other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions [e.g., isn't], and using first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.

VII.  Evidence-Based Reasoning Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that statements are based on evidence-based reasoning. This refers to possessing a clear understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and often external to, your discipline concerning the topic. You need to support your arguments with evidence from scholarly [i.e., academic or peer-reviewed] sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument; the quality of the evidence you cite will determine the strength of your argument. The objective is to convince the reader of the validity of your thoughts through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of action.

VIII.  Thesis-Driven Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the questions applied to investigating the research problem. Note that a problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering information or data to better understand the problem.

IX.  Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented during class. This is also one of the main functions of academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible.  As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Roy. Improve Your Writing Skills . Manchester, UK: Clifton Press, 1995; Nygaard, Lynn P. Writing for Scholars: A Practical Guide to Making Sense and Being Heard . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2015; Silvia, Paul J. How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007; Style, Diction, Tone, and Voice. Writing Center, Wheaton College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.

Strategies for...

Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon

The very definition of research jargon is language specific to a particular community of practitioner-researchers . Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of a each discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of their work.

Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions . Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline. These can be found by either searching in the USC Libraries catalog by entering the disciplinary and the word dictionary [e.g., sociology and dictionary] or using a database such as Credo Reference [a curated collection of subject encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, guides from highly regarded publishers] . It is appropriate for you to use specialist language within your field of study, but you should avoid using such language when writing for non-academic or general audiences.

Problems with Opaque Writing

A common criticism of scholars is that they can utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:

1.   Excessive use of specialized terminology . Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear, concise, and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.

2.   Inappropriate use of specialized terminology . Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--do not just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog or the Credo Reference database [see above].

Additional Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:

  • Personal nouns . Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
  • Directives . Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes. Note that an exception to this can be found in various forms of action research that involve evidence-based advocacy for social justice or transformative change. Within this area of the social sciences, authors may offer directives for action in a declarative tone of urgency.
  • Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms . Academic writing relies on excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang terms because they can be open to interpretation. Your writing should be direct and concise using standard English.
  • Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not have confusing language . By doing so, you  help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting the design and purpose of your study.
  • Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack context or specificity.
  • Numbered lists and bulleted items . The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with hedge funds are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and avoid checkmarks or other symbols.
  • Descriptive writing . Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study. In fact, some description or background information may be needed because you can not assume the reader knows the key aspects of the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
  • Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging your readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only as an example, though, because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.

NOTE:   Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting someone.  A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted text to indicate that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source had grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.

Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Eileen S. “Action Research.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education . Edited by George W. Noblit and Joseph R. Neikirk. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020); Oppenheimer, Daniel M. "Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly." Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139-156; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020; Pernawan, Ari. Common Flaws in Students' Research Proposals. English Education Department. Yogyakarta State University; Style. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Improving Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas: 1.   Clear Writing . The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully. 2.  Excellent Grammar . Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Take advantage of the Writing Center on campus if you need help. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing [see sub-tab for proofreading you paper ].

Refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing skills:

  • A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and White’s book, The Elements of Style or the St. Martin's Handbook ;
  • A college-level dictionary, such as, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary ;
  • The latest edition of Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form .

3.  Consistent Stylistic Approach . Whether your professor expresses a preference to use MLA, APA or the Chicago Manual of Style or not, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style manuals provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves its readability. Note that some disciplines require a particular style [e.g., education uses APA] so as you write more papers within your major, your familiarity with it will improve.

II. Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in your writing.

  • It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
  • Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
  • You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
  • You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
  • The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
  • The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
  • You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
  • You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
  • Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
  • Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
  • The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.

Boscoloa, Pietro, Barbara Arféb, and Mara Quarisaa. “Improving the Quality of Students' Academic Writing: An Intervention Study.” Studies in Higher Education 32 (August 2007): 419-438; Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; Candlin, Christopher. Academic Writing Step-By-Step: A Research-based Approach . Bristol, CT: Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2016; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Style . College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Considering the Passive Voice in Academic Writing

In the English language, we are able to construct sentences in the following way: 1.  "The policies of Congress caused the economic crisis." 2.  "The economic crisis was caused by the policies of Congress."

The decision about which sentence to use is governed by whether you want to focus on “Congress” and what they did, or on “the economic crisis” and what caused it. This choice in focus is achieved with the use of either the active or the passive voice. When you want your readers to focus on the "doer" of an action, you can make the "doer"' the subject of the sentence and use the active form of the verb. When you want readers to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself, you can make the effect or the action the subject of the sentence by using the passive form of the verb.

Often in academic writing, scholars don't want to focus on who is doing an action, but on who is receiving or experiencing the consequences of that action. The passive voice is useful in academic writing because it allows writers to highlight the most important participants or events within sentences by placing them at the beginning of the sentence.

Use the passive voice when:

  • You want to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself;
  • It is not important who or what did the action;
  • You want to be impersonal or more formal.

Form the passive voice by:

  • Turning the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
  • Changing the verb to a passive form by adding the appropriate form of the verb "to be" and the past participle of the main verb.

NOTE: Consult with your professor about using the passive voice before submitting your research paper. Some strongly discourage its use!

Active and Passive Voice. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Diefenbach, Paul. Future of Digital Media Syllabus. Drexel University; Passive Voice. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.  

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8 Types of Words Not to Use in an Essay (And Why You Shouldn’t)

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by  Antony W

October 6, 2021

words not to use in an essay

Academic writing is different from creative writing mostly because it’s formal. And although creativity is welcome in essay assignments, there are words and phrases that can cost you important marks if you use them in college assignments.

We know how hard writing essays can be, especially because you don’t have the opportunity to implement the elements of creative writing. Plus, it’s time and energy consuming because you have to do a lot of research, write a working thesis , build an outline, defend arguments , and have an impressive paper at the end of it all. 

As challenging as essay writing can be, it’s not impossible. You can take your research and put it on the paper before the deadline elapse. However, the words you use to write is what will count towards enticing (convincing) your readers or boring them altogether. 

To be clear, not words are useful in essay writing. While you can use idioms and self-made sayings and quotes in creative writing, essay writing requires a 100% forma approach. That’s why it’s important to avoid these words if you want your essays to read well.

Word to Avoid in Essay Writing  

1. contractions  .

By definition, contractions are a combination of words linked together with apostrophes. Since they shorten words, contractions tend to lower the number of words in written and spoken communication. As interesting as contractions sound when read verbally, they hardly have a place in formal academic writing. You can use them in college application essays to personalize your application, but they won’t be appropriate for other types of formal essays or research assignments.

Words such as “can’t” and “mustn’t” should not appear in your academic paper, even in the case where you have to write a persuasive essay in your own voice. You should write the words in full instead.

2. Personal Pronouns 

Personal pronouns are okay for college admissions essays, persuasive essay writing, and opinion essays but bad for everything else in academic writing.

Take argumentative essay writing , for example. A writer must academically reflect on arguments that correspond with their opinions and be 100% free from personal feelings. Given that they have to speak facts, which are practically difficult to explain in first person pronouns, you should avoid using words such as “I” and “We” in the essay.

To be clear, academic essays must never sound subjective. An essay that sounds subjective tends to be full of bias and sounds more like a narrative paper. As such you should avoid using personal pronouns in an essay unless otherwise instructed to do so.

3. Rhetorical Questions 

People read academic essays because they’re looking for answers to the questions that they have. So asking questions is an essay makes your writing irrelevant to a great degree.

Here’s why: 

Every time you ask a rhetorical question in an essay , you shift the burden to answer from the writer (you) to the reader (your audience). Unfortunately, the question itself doesn’t add value because they don’t provide any clue, information, or explanation. Not to mention that they’re so much irritating that they tend to easily draw attention away from the essay.

Keep in mind that what might seem obvious to you won’t be so for someone reading your essay. So instead of filling your writing with questions that will otherwise disinterest your audience, use rhetorical statements.

4. Quotes 

There’s nothing wrong with starting an essay with a quote provided it’s relevant to the issue under investigation. To make sure your readers understand the quotation, you have to explain what the quote means and its significance in the essay.

You can also end an essay with a quote provided it’s relevant to the topic.

The problem comes in when you don’t know exactly how to use quotes in the essay.

From an academic writing standpoint, you should never include a quote that you’ve made up yourself. If you must include a quote in your work, make sure it’s from a well-known author whose work is academic worthy. 

Second, don’t just copy the quotation to your writing. Explain what it is about and demonstrate how it’s significant to the topic you’re investigating. Also, you have to reference the quote so that your professor knows where you found it.

While the idea of using quotes in your work may seem Interesting, it’s best to avoid them entirely. Unless you strongly believe there’s a need to include a quote from Elon Musk, Bill Gates, Donald Trump, Hemingway, or Obama in your work, stick to a tone that presents your personality and thoughts.

5. Passive Voice 

You should not use passive voice in an essay for the simple reason that it weakens your writing. Given its kind of grammar construction, passive voice lacks reference to who the subject (or actor) is and can make your content difficult to consume.

Use active voice in essay writing. It will make your statements clear to your reader and therefore make your paper easy and interesting to read. 

6. Vague Words 

How often do you mention words such as bad, good, thing, stuff, and big? We believe these are words you use in every day talk. However, they’re not appropriate for essay writing because they tend to make your work sound vague and elementary.

Once you finish writing your essay, re-read it, highlight the most all the inappropriate words or phrases, and then replace them with synonyms and phrases accepted in academic writing.

7. Slang 

We can’t deny that jargon, teen speak, and slang have taken root in the society. However, Buzzfeed’s style of writing isn’t something your teachers will appreciate. You need to train yourself to write and speak in a formal language, for the sake of your essay assignment at least. Leave slang to where it belongs and stick to formal writing instead.

8. Idioms 

Aren’t idioms good for enriching written works? Well, they’re but are too informal to be appropriate in academic writing. Remember, academic writing must be formal. Any idiom you include in the article breaks that rule and ruins your chances of scoring good grades.

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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  • Tips & Guides

How To Avoid Using “We,” “You,” And “I” in an Essay

  • Posted on October 27, 2022 October 27, 2022

Maintaining a formal voice while writing academic essays and papers is essential to sound objective. 

One of the main rules of academic or formal writing is to avoid first-person pronouns like “we,” “you,” and “I.” These words pull focus away from the topic and shift it to the speaker – the opposite of your goal.

While it may seem difficult at first, some tricks can help you avoid personal language and keep a professional tone.

Let’s learn how to avoid using “we” in an essay.

What Is a Personal Pronoun?

Pronouns are words used to refer to a noun indirectly. Examples include “he,” “his,” “her,” and “hers.” Any time you refer to a noun – whether a person, object, or animal – without using its name, you use a pronoun.

Personal pronouns are a type of pronoun. A personal pronoun is a pronoun you use whenever you directly refer to the subject of the sentence. 

Take the following short paragraph as an example:

“Mr. Smith told the class yesterday to work on our essays. Mr. Smith also said that Mr. Smith lost Mr. Smith’s laptop in the lunchroom.”

The above sentence contains no pronouns at all. There are three places where you would insert a pronoun, but only two where you would put a personal pronoun. See the revised sentence below:

“Mr. Smith told the class yesterday to work on our essays. He also said that he lost his laptop in the lunchroom.”

“He” is a personal pronoun because we are talking directly about Mr. Smith. “His” is not a personal pronoun (it’s a possessive pronoun) because we are not speaking directly about Mr. Smith. Rather, we are talking about Mr. Smith’s laptop.

If later on you talk about Mr. Smith’s laptop, you may say:

“Mr. Smith found it in his car, not the lunchroom!” 

In this case, “it” is a personal pronoun because in this point of view we are making a reference to the laptop directly and not as something owned by Mr. Smith.

Why Avoid Personal Pronouns in Essay Writing

We’re teaching you how to avoid using “I” in writing, but why is this necessary? Academic writing aims to focus on a clear topic, sound objective, and paint the writer as a source of authority. Word choice can significantly impact your success in achieving these goals.

Writing that uses personal pronouns can unintentionally shift the reader’s focus onto the writer, pulling their focus away from the topic at hand.

Personal pronouns may also make your work seem less objective. 

One of the most challenging parts of essay writing is learning which words to avoid and how to avoid them. Fortunately, following a few simple tricks, you can master the English Language and write like a pro in no time.

Alternatives To Using Personal Pronouns

How to not use “I” in a paper? What are the alternatives? There are many ways to avoid the use of personal pronouns in academic writing. By shifting your word choice and sentence structure, you can keep the overall meaning of your sentences while re-shaping your tone.

Utilize Passive Voice

In conventional writing, students are taught to avoid the passive voice as much as possible, but it can be an excellent way to avoid first-person pronouns in academic writing.

You can use the passive voice to avoid using pronouns. Take this sentence, for example:

“ We used 150 ml of HCl for the experiment.”

Instead of using “we” and the active voice, you can use a passive voice without a pronoun. The sentence above becomes:

“150 ml of HCl were used for the experiment.” 

Using the passive voice removes your team from the experiment and makes your work sound more objective.

Take a Third-Person Perspective

Another answer to “how to avoid using ‘we’ in an essay?” is the use of a third-person perspective. Changing the perspective is a good way to take first-person pronouns out of a sentence. A third-person point of view will not use any first-person pronouns because the information is not given from the speaker’s perspective.

A third-person sentence is spoken entirely about the subject where the speaker is outside of the sentence.

Take a look at the sentence below:

“In this article you will learn about formal writing.”

The perspective in that sentence is second person, and it uses the personal pronoun “you.” You can change this sentence to sound more objective by using third-person pronouns:

“In this article the reader will learn about formal writing.”

The use of a third-person point of view makes the second sentence sound more academic and confident. Second-person pronouns, like those used in the first sentence, sound less formal and objective.

Be Specific With Word Choice

You can avoid first-personal pronouns by choosing your words carefully. Often, you may find that you are inserting unnecessary nouns into your work. 

Take the following sentence as an example:

“ My research shows the students did poorly on the test.”

In this case, the first-person pronoun ‘my’ can be entirely cut out from the sentence. It then becomes:

“Research shows the students did poorly on the test.”

The second sentence is more succinct and sounds more authoritative without changing the sentence structure.

You should also make sure to watch out for the improper use of adverbs and nouns. Being careful with your word choice regarding nouns, adverbs, verbs, and adjectives can help mitigate your use of personal pronouns. 

“They bravely started the French revolution in 1789.” 

While this sentence might be fine in a story about the revolution, an essay or academic piece should only focus on the facts. The world ‘bravely’ is a good indicator that you are inserting unnecessary personal pronouns into your work.

We can revise this sentence into:

“The French revolution started in 1789.” 

Avoid adverbs (adjectives that describe verbs), and you will find that you avoid personal pronouns by default.

Closing Thoughts

In academic writing, It is crucial to sound objective and focus on the topic. Using personal pronouns pulls the focus away from the subject and makes writing sound subjective.

Hopefully, this article has helped you learn how to avoid using “we” in an essay.

When working on any formal writing assignment, avoid personal pronouns and informal language as much as possible.

While getting the hang of academic writing, you will likely make some mistakes, so revising is vital. Always double-check for personal pronouns, plagiarism , spelling mistakes, and correctly cited pieces. 

 You can prevent and correct mistakes using a plagiarism checker at any time, completely for free.

Quetext is a platform that helps you with all those tasks. Check out all resources that are available to you today.

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  • How to avoid repetition and redundancy

How to Avoid Repetition and Redundancy in Academic Writing

Published on March 15, 2019 by Kristin Wieben . Revised on July 23, 2023.

Repetition and redundancy can cause problems at the level of either the entire paper or individual sentences. However, repetition is not always a problem as, when used properly, it can help your reader follow along. This article shows how to streamline your writing.

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Table of contents

Avoiding repetition at the paper level, avoiding repetition at the sentence level, when is repetition not a problem, other interesting articles.

On the most basic level, avoid copy-and-pasting entire sentences or paragraphs into multiple sections of the paper. Readers generally don’t enjoy repetition of this type.

Don’t restate points you’ve already made

It’s important to strike an appropriate balance between restating main ideas to help readers follow along and avoiding unnecessary repetition that might distract or bore readers.

For example, if you’ve already covered your methods in a dedicated methodology chapter , you likely won’t need to summarize them a second time in the results chapter .

If you’re concerned about readers needing additional reminders, you can add short asides pointing readers to the relevant section of the paper (e.g. “For more details, see Chapter 4”).

Don’t use the same heading more than once

It’s important for each section to have its own heading so that readers skimming the text can easily identify what information it contains. If you have two conclusion sections, try making the heading more descriptive – for instance, “Conclusion of X.”

Are all sections relevant to the main goal of the paper?

Try to avoid providing redundant information. Every section, example and argument should serve the main goal of your paper and should relate to your thesis statement or research question .

If the link between a particular piece of information and your broader purpose is unclear, then you should more explicitly draw the connection or otherwise remove that information from your paper.

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Keep an eye out for lengthy introductory clauses that restate the main point of the previous sentence. This sort of sentence structure can bury the new point you’re trying to make. Try to keep introductory clauses relatively short so that readers are still focused by the time they encounter the main point of the sentence.

In addition to paying attention to these introductory clauses, you might want to read your paper aloud to catch excessive repetition. Below we listed some tips for avoiding the most common forms of repetition.

  • Use a variety of different transition words
  • Vary the structure and length of your sentences
  • Don’t use the same pronoun to reference more than one antecedent (e.g. “ They asked whether they were ready for them”)
  • Avoid repetition of particular sounds or words (e.g. “ Several shelves sheltered similar sets of shells ”)
  • Avoid redundancies (e.g “ In the year 2019 ” instead of “ in 2019 ”)
  • Don’t state the obvious (e.g. “The conclusion chapter contains the paper’s conclusions”)

It’s important to stress that repetition isn’t always problematic. Repetition can help your readers follow along. However, before adding repetitive elements to your paper, be sure to ask yourself if they are truly necessary.

Restating key points

Repeating key points from time to time can help readers follow along, especially in papers that address highly complex subjects. Here are some good examples of when repetition is not a problem:

Restating the research question in the conclusion This will remind readers of exactly what your paper set out to accomplish and help to demonstrate that you’ve indeed achieved your goal.

Referring to your key variables or themes Rather than use varied language to refer to these key elements of the paper, it’s best to use a standard set of terminology throughout the paper, as this can help your readers follow along.

Underlining main points

When used sparingly, repetitive sentence and paragraph structures can add rhetorical flourish and help to underline your main points. Here are a few famous examples:

“ Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country” – John F. Kennedy, inaugural address

“…and that government of the people , by the people , for the people shall not perish from the earth.” – Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Should I Use “I”?

What this handout is about.

This handout is about determining when to use first person pronouns (“I”, “we,” “me,” “us,” “my,” and “our”) and personal experience in academic writing. “First person” and “personal experience” might sound like two ways of saying the same thing, but first person and personal experience can work in very different ways in your writing. You might choose to use “I” but not make any reference to your individual experiences in a particular paper. Or you might include a brief description of an experience that could help illustrate a point you’re making without ever using the word “I.” So whether or not you should use first person and personal experience are really two separate questions, both of which this handout addresses. It also offers some alternatives if you decide that either “I” or personal experience isn’t appropriate for your project. If you’ve decided that you do want to use one of them, this handout offers some ideas about how to do so effectively, because in many cases using one or the other might strengthen your writing.

Expectations about academic writing

Students often arrive at college with strict lists of writing rules in mind. Often these are rather strict lists of absolutes, including rules both stated and unstated:

  • Each essay should have exactly five paragraphs.
  • Don’t begin a sentence with “and” or “because.”
  • Never include personal opinion.
  • Never use “I” in essays.

We get these ideas primarily from teachers and other students. Often these ideas are derived from good advice but have been turned into unnecessarily strict rules in our minds. The problem is that overly strict rules about writing can prevent us, as writers, from being flexible enough to learn to adapt to the writing styles of different fields, ranging from the sciences to the humanities, and different kinds of writing projects, ranging from reviews to research.

So when it suits your purpose as a scholar, you will probably need to break some of the old rules, particularly the rules that prohibit first person pronouns and personal experience. Although there are certainly some instructors who think that these rules should be followed (so it is a good idea to ask directly), many instructors in all kinds of fields are finding reason to depart from these rules. Avoiding “I” can lead to awkwardness and vagueness, whereas using it in your writing can improve style and clarity. Using personal experience, when relevant, can add concreteness and even authority to writing that might otherwise be vague and impersonal. Because college writing situations vary widely in terms of stylistic conventions, tone, audience, and purpose, the trick is deciphering the conventions of your writing context and determining how your purpose and audience affect the way you write. The rest of this handout is devoted to strategies for figuring out when to use “I” and personal experience.

Effective uses of “I”:

In many cases, using the first person pronoun can improve your writing, by offering the following benefits:

  • Assertiveness: In some cases you might wish to emphasize agency (who is doing what), as for instance if you need to point out how valuable your particular project is to an academic discipline or to claim your unique perspective or argument.
  • Clarity: Because trying to avoid the first person can lead to awkward constructions and vagueness, using the first person can improve your writing style.
  • Positioning yourself in the essay: In some projects, you need to explain how your research or ideas build on or depart from the work of others, in which case you’ll need to say “I,” “we,” “my,” or “our”; if you wish to claim some kind of authority on the topic, first person may help you do so.

Deciding whether “I” will help your style

Here is an example of how using the first person can make the writing clearer and more assertive:

Original example:

In studying American popular culture of the 1980s, the question of to what degree materialism was a major characteristic of the cultural milieu was explored.

Better example using first person:

In our study of American popular culture of the 1980s, we explored the degree to which materialism characterized the cultural milieu.

The original example sounds less emphatic and direct than the revised version; using “I” allows the writers to avoid the convoluted construction of the original and clarifies who did what.

Here is an example in which alternatives to the first person would be more appropriate:

As I observed the communication styles of first-year Carolina women, I noticed frequent use of non-verbal cues.

Better example:

A study of the communication styles of first-year Carolina women revealed frequent use of non-verbal cues.

In the original example, using the first person grounds the experience heavily in the writer’s subjective, individual perspective, but the writer’s purpose is to describe a phenomenon that is in fact objective or independent of that perspective. Avoiding the first person here creates the desired impression of an observed phenomenon that could be reproduced and also creates a stronger, clearer statement.

Here’s another example in which an alternative to first person works better:

As I was reading this study of medieval village life, I noticed that social class tended to be clearly defined.

This study of medieval village life reveals that social class tended to be clearly defined.

Although you may run across instructors who find the casual style of the original example refreshing, they are probably rare. The revised version sounds more academic and renders the statement more assertive and direct.

Here’s a final example:

I think that Aristotle’s ethical arguments are logical and readily applicable to contemporary cases, or at least it seems that way to me.

Better example

Aristotle’s ethical arguments are logical and readily applicable to contemporary cases.

In this example, there is no real need to announce that that statement about Aristotle is your thought; this is your paper, so readers will assume that the ideas in it are yours.

Determining whether to use “I” according to the conventions of the academic field

Which fields allow “I”?

The rules for this are changing, so it’s always best to ask your instructor if you’re not sure about using first person. But here are some general guidelines.

Sciences: In the past, scientific writers avoided the use of “I” because scientists often view the first person as interfering with the impression of objectivity and impersonality they are seeking to create. But conventions seem to be changing in some cases—for instance, when a scientific writer is describing a project she is working on or positioning that project within the existing research on the topic. Check with your science instructor to find out whether it’s o.k. to use “I” in his/her class.

Social Sciences: Some social scientists try to avoid “I” for the same reasons that other scientists do. But first person is becoming more commonly accepted, especially when the writer is describing his/her project or perspective.

Humanities: Ask your instructor whether you should use “I.” The purpose of writing in the humanities is generally to offer your own analysis of language, ideas, or a work of art. Writers in these fields tend to value assertiveness and to emphasize agency (who’s doing what), so the first person is often—but not always—appropriate. Sometimes writers use the first person in a less effective way, preceding an assertion with “I think,” “I feel,” or “I believe” as if such a phrase could replace a real defense of an argument. While your audience is generally interested in your perspective in the humanities fields, readers do expect you to fully argue, support, and illustrate your assertions. Personal belief or opinion is generally not sufficient in itself; you will need evidence of some kind to convince your reader.

Other writing situations: If you’re writing a speech, use of the first and even the second person (“you”) is generally encouraged because these personal pronouns can create a desirable sense of connection between speaker and listener and can contribute to the sense that the speaker is sincere and involved in the issue. If you’re writing a resume, though, avoid the first person; describe your experience, education, and skills without using a personal pronoun (for example, under “Experience” you might write “Volunteered as a peer counselor”).

A note on the second person “you”:

In situations where your intention is to sound conversational and friendly because it suits your purpose, as it does in this handout intended to offer helpful advice, or in a letter or speech, “you” might help to create just the sense of familiarity you’re after. But in most academic writing situations, “you” sounds overly conversational, as for instance in a claim like “when you read the poem ‘The Wasteland,’ you feel a sense of emptiness.” In this case, the “you” sounds overly conversational. The statement would read better as “The poem ‘The Wasteland’ creates a sense of emptiness.” Academic writers almost always use alternatives to the second person pronoun, such as “one,” “the reader,” or “people.”

Personal experience in academic writing

The question of whether personal experience has a place in academic writing depends on context and purpose. In papers that seek to analyze an objective principle or data as in science papers, or in papers for a field that explicitly tries to minimize the effect of the researcher’s presence such as anthropology, personal experience would probably distract from your purpose. But sometimes you might need to explicitly situate your position as researcher in relation to your subject of study. Or if your purpose is to present your individual response to a work of art, to offer examples of how an idea or theory might apply to life, or to use experience as evidence or a demonstration of an abstract principle, personal experience might have a legitimate role to play in your academic writing. Using personal experience effectively usually means keeping it in the service of your argument, as opposed to letting it become an end in itself or take over the paper.

It’s also usually best to keep your real or hypothetical stories brief, but they can strengthen arguments in need of concrete illustrations or even just a little more vitality.

Here are some examples of effective ways to incorporate personal experience in academic writing:

  • Anecdotes: In some cases, brief examples of experiences you’ve had or witnessed may serve as useful illustrations of a point you’re arguing or a theory you’re evaluating. For instance, in philosophical arguments, writers often use a real or hypothetical situation to illustrate abstract ideas and principles.
  • References to your own experience can explain your interest in an issue or even help to establish your authority on a topic.
  • Some specific writing situations, such as application essays, explicitly call for discussion of personal experience.

Here are some suggestions about including personal experience in writing for specific fields:

Philosophy: In philosophical writing, your purpose is generally to reconstruct or evaluate an existing argument, and/or to generate your own. Sometimes, doing this effectively may involve offering a hypothetical example or an illustration. In these cases, you might find that inventing or recounting a scenario that you’ve experienced or witnessed could help demonstrate your point. Personal experience can play a very useful role in your philosophy papers, as long as you always explain to the reader how the experience is related to your argument. (See our handout on writing in philosophy for more information.)

Religion: Religion courses might seem like a place where personal experience would be welcomed. But most religion courses take a cultural, historical, or textual approach, and these generally require objectivity and impersonality. So although you probably have very strong beliefs or powerful experiences in this area that might motivate your interest in the field, they shouldn’t supplant scholarly analysis. But ask your instructor, as it is possible that he or she is interested in your personal experiences with religion, especially in less formal assignments such as response papers. (See our handout on writing in religious studies for more information.)

Literature, Music, Fine Arts, and Film: Writing projects in these fields can sometimes benefit from the inclusion of personal experience, as long as it isn’t tangential. For instance, your annoyance over your roommate’s habits might not add much to an analysis of “Citizen Kane.” However, if you’re writing about Ridley Scott’s treatment of relationships between women in the movie “Thelma and Louise,” some reference your own observations about these relationships might be relevant if it adds to your analysis of the film. Personal experience can be especially appropriate in a response paper, or in any kind of assignment that asks about your experience of the work as a reader or viewer. Some film and literature scholars are interested in how a film or literary text is received by different audiences, so a discussion of how a particular viewer or reader experiences or identifies with the piece would probably be appropriate. (See our handouts on writing about fiction , art history , and drama for more information.)

Women’s Studies: Women’s Studies classes tend to be taught from a feminist perspective, a perspective which is generally interested in the ways in which individuals experience gender roles. So personal experience can often serve as evidence for your analytical and argumentative papers in this field. This field is also one in which you might be asked to keep a journal, a kind of writing that requires you to apply theoretical concepts to your experiences.

History: If you’re analyzing a historical period or issue, personal experience is less likely to advance your purpose of objectivity. However, some kinds of historical scholarship do involve the exploration of personal histories. So although you might not be referencing your own experience, you might very well be discussing other people’s experiences as illustrations of their historical contexts. (See our handout on writing in history for more information.)

Sciences: Because the primary purpose is to study data and fixed principles in an objective way, personal experience is less likely to have a place in this kind of writing. Often, as in a lab report, your goal is to describe observations in such a way that a reader could duplicate the experiment, so the less extra information, the better. Of course, if you’re working in the social sciences, case studies—accounts of the personal experiences of other people—are a crucial part of your scholarship. (See our handout on  writing in the sciences for more information.)

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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words you should not use in a research paper

50 Useful Academic Words & Phrases for Research

Like all good writing, writing an academic paper takes a certain level of skill to express your ideas and arguments in a way that is natural and that meets a level of academic sophistication. The terms, expressions, and phrases you use in your research paper must be of an appropriate level to be submitted to academic journals.

Therefore, authors need to know which verbs , nouns , and phrases to apply to create a paper that is not only easy to understand, but which conveys an understanding of academic conventions. Using the correct terminology and usage shows journal editors and fellow researchers that you are a competent writer and thinker, while using non-academic language might make them question your writing ability, as well as your critical reasoning skills.

What are academic words and phrases?

One way to understand what constitutes good academic writing is to read a lot of published research to find patterns of usage in different contexts. However, it may take an author countless hours of reading and might not be the most helpful advice when faced with an upcoming deadline on a manuscript draft.

Briefly, “academic” language includes terms, phrases, expressions, transitions, and sometimes symbols and abbreviations that help the pieces of an academic text fit together. When writing an academic text–whether it is a book report, annotated bibliography, research paper, research poster, lab report, research proposal, thesis, or manuscript for publication–authors must follow academic writing conventions. You can often find handy academic writing tips and guidelines by consulting the style manual of the text you are writing (i.e., APA Style , MLA Style , or Chicago Style ).

However, sometimes it can be helpful to have a list of academic words and expressions like the ones in this article to use as a “cheat sheet” for substituting the better term in a given context.

How to Choose the Best Academic Terms

You can think of writing “academically” as writing in a way that conveys one’s meaning effectively but concisely. For instance, while the term “take a look at” is a perfectly fine way to express an action in everyday English, a term like “analyze” would certainly be more suitable in most academic contexts. It takes up fewer words on the page and is used much more often in published academic papers.

You can use one handy guideline when choosing the most academic term: When faced with a choice between two different terms, use the Latinate version of the term. Here is a brief list of common verbs versus their academic counterparts:

Although this can be a useful tip to help academic authors, it can be difficult to memorize dozens of Latinate verbs. Using an AI paraphrasing tool or proofreading tool can help you instantly find more appropriate academic terms, so consider using such revision tools while you draft to improve your writing.

Top 50 Words and Phrases for Different Sections in a Research Paper

The “Latinate verb rule” is just one tool in your arsenal of academic writing, and there are many more out there. But to make the process of finding academic language a bit easier for you, we have compiled a list of 50 vital academic words and phrases, divided into specific categories and use cases, each with an explanation and contextual example.

Best Words and Phrases to use in an Introduction section

1. historically.

An adverb used to indicate a time perspective, especially when describing the background of a given topic.

2. In recent years

A temporal marker emphasizing recent developments, often used at the very beginning of your Introduction section.

3. It is widely acknowledged that

A “form phrase” indicating a broad consensus among researchers and/or the general public. Often used in the literature review section to build upon a foundation of established scientific knowledge.

4. There has been growing interest in

Highlights increasing attention to a topic and tells the reader why your study might be important to this field of research.

5. Preliminary observations indicate

Shares early insights or findings while hedging on making any definitive conclusions. Modal verbs like may , might , and could are often used with this expression.

6. This study aims to

Describes the goal of the research and is a form phrase very often used in the research objective or even the hypothesis of a research paper .

7. Despite its significance

Highlights the importance of a matter that might be overlooked. It is also frequently used in the rationale of the study section to show how your study’s aim and scope build on previous studies.

8. While numerous studies have focused on

Indicates the existing body of work on a topic while pointing to the shortcomings of certain aspects of that research. Helps focus the reader on the question, “What is missing from our knowledge of this topic?” This is often used alongside the statement of the problem in research papers.

9. The purpose of this research is

A form phrase that directly states the aim of the study.

10. The question arises (about/whether)

Poses a query or research problem statement for the reader to acknowledge.

Best Words and Phrases for Clarifying Information

11. in other words.

Introduces a synopsis or the rephrasing of a statement for clarity. This is often used in the Discussion section statement to explain the implications of the study .

12. That is to say

Provides clarification, similar to “in other words.”

13. To put it simply

Simplifies a complex idea, often for a more general readership.

14. To clarify

Specifically indicates to the reader a direct elaboration of a previous point.

15. More specifically

Narrows down a general statement from a broader one. Often used in the Discussion section to clarify the meaning of a specific result.

16. To elaborate

Expands on a point made previously.

17. In detail

Indicates a deeper dive into information.

Points out specifics. Similar meaning to “specifically” or “especially.”

19. This means that

Explains implications and/or interprets the meaning of the Results section .

20. Moreover

Expands a prior point to a broader one that shows the greater context or wider argument.

Best Words and Phrases for Giving Examples

21. for instance.

Provides a specific case that fits into the point being made.

22. As an illustration

Demonstrates a point in full or in part.

23. To illustrate

Shows a clear picture of the point being made.

24. For example

Presents a particular instance. Same meaning as “for instance.”

25. Such as

Lists specifics that comprise a broader category or assertion being made.

26. Including

Offers examples as part of a larger list.

27. Notably

Adverb highlighting an important example. Similar meaning to “especially.”

28. Especially

Adverb that emphasizes a significant instance.

29. In particular

Draws attention to a specific point.

30. To name a few

Indicates examples than previously mentioned are about to be named.

Best Words and Phrases for Comparing and Contrasting

31. however.

Introduces a contrasting idea.

32. On the other hand

Highlights an alternative view or fact.

33. Conversely

Indicates an opposing or reversed idea to the one just mentioned.

34. Similarly

Shows likeness or parallels between two ideas, objects, or situations.

35. Likewise

Indicates agreement with a previous point.

36. In contrast

Draws a distinction between two points.

37. Nevertheless

Introduces a contrasting point, despite what has been said.

38. Whereas

Compares two distinct entities or ideas.

Indicates a contrast between two points.

Signals an unexpected contrast.

Best Words and Phrases to use in a Conclusion section

41. in conclusion.

Signifies the beginning of the closing argument.

42. To sum up

Offers a brief summary.

43. In summary

Signals a concise recap.

44. Ultimately

Reflects the final or main point.

45. Overall

Gives a general concluding statement.

Indicates a resulting conclusion.

Demonstrates a logical conclusion.

48. Therefore

Connects a cause and its effect.

49. It can be concluded that

Clearly states a conclusion derived from the data.

50. Taking everything into consideration

Reflects on all the discussed points before concluding.

Edit Your Research Terms and Phrases Before Submission

Using these phrases in the proper places in your research papers can enhance the clarity, flow, and persuasiveness of your writing, especially in the Introduction section and Discussion section, which together make up the majority of your paper’s text in most academic domains.

However, it's vital to ensure each phrase is contextually appropriate to avoid redundancy or misinterpretation. As mentioned at the top of this article, the best way to do this is to 1) use an AI text editor , free AI paraphrasing tool or AI proofreading tool while you draft to enhance your writing, and 2) consult a professional proofreading service like Wordvice, which has human editors well versed in the terminology and conventions of the specific subject area of your academic documents.

For more detailed information on using AI tools to write a research paper and the best AI tools for research , check out the Wordvice AI Blog .

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  • Writing Tips

Can You Use I or We in a Research Paper?

Can You Use I or We in a Research Paper?

4-minute read

  • 11th July 2023

Writing in the first person, or using I and we pronouns, has traditionally been frowned upon in academic writing . But despite this long-standing norm, writing in the first person isn’t actually prohibited. In fact, it’s becoming more acceptable – even in research papers.

 If you’re wondering whether you can use I (or we ) in your research paper, you should check with your institution first and foremost. Many schools have rules regarding first-person use. If it’s up to you, though, we still recommend some guidelines. Check out our tips below!

When Is It Most Acceptable to Write in the First Person?

Certain sections of your paper are more conducive to writing in the first person. Typically, the first person makes sense in the abstract, introduction, discussion, and conclusion sections. You should still limit your use of I and we , though, or your essay may start to sound like a personal narrative .

 Using first-person pronouns is most useful and acceptable in the following circumstances.

When doing so removes the passive voice and adds flow

Sometimes, writers have to bend over backward just to avoid using the first person, often producing clunky sentences and a lot of passive voice constructions. The first person can remedy this. For example: 

Both sentences are fine, but the second one flows better and is easier to read.

When doing so differentiates between your research and other literature

When discussing literature from other researchers and authors, you might be comparing it with your own findings or hypotheses . Using the first person can help clarify that you are engaging in such a comparison. For example: 

 In the first sentence, using “the author” to avoid the first person creates ambiguity. The second sentence prevents misinterpretation.

When doing so allows you to express your interest in the subject

In some instances, you may need to provide background for why you’re researching your topic. This information may include your personal interest in or experience with the subject, both of which are easier to express using first-person pronouns. For example:

Expressing personal experiences and viewpoints isn’t always a good idea in research papers. When it’s appropriate to do so, though, just make sure you don’t overuse the first person.

When to Avoid Writing in the First Person

It’s usually a good idea to stick to the third person in the methods and results sections of your research paper. Additionally, be careful not to use the first person when:

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●  It makes your findings seem like personal observations rather than factual results.

●  It removes objectivity and implies that the writing may be biased .

●  It appears in phrases such as I think or I believe , which can weaken your writing.

Keeping Your Writing Formal and Objective

Using the first person while maintaining a formal tone can be tricky, but keeping a few tips in mind can help you strike a balance. The important thing is to make sure the tone isn’t too conversational.

 To achieve this, avoid referring to the readers, such as with the second-person you . Use we and us only when referring to yourself and the other authors/researchers involved in the paper, not the audience.

It’s becoming more acceptable in the academic world to use first-person pronouns such as we and I in research papers. But make sure you check with your instructor or institution first because they may have strict rules regarding this practice.

 If you do decide to use the first person, make sure you do so effectively by following the tips we’ve laid out in this guide. And once you’ve written a draft, send us a copy! Our expert proofreaders and editors will be happy to check your grammar, spelling, word choice, references, tone, and more. Submit a 500-word sample today!

Is it ever acceptable to use I or we in a research paper?

In some instances, using first-person pronouns can help you to establish credibility, add clarity, and make the writing easier to read.

How can I avoid using I in my writing?

Writing in the passive voice can help you to avoid using the first person.

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Do You Overlook These Key Elements When Writing a Research Manuscript?

How to write a research manuscript by avoiding errors

As with any other skill, academic writing can be improved through practice and experience. Writing publishable research manuscripts does not come naturally to most scientific researchers, even those with a great deal of experience. However, because publication is so important to the success of research studies, and thus researchers, writing is often a skill that needs to be strengthened. The good news is information on how to write a manuscript for publication is widely available for those who want to improve their writing skills. We’ll go a step further and shortlist some key elements that often get overlooked when writing research manuscripts.

Introduction issues

As implied by the section name, the Introduction provides the reader with information basic to understanding the study. The problem being addressed is described, a research gap in the existing literature is identified, and the aims of the study are stated. When writing a manuscript for publication, you should leave this section until last. Oftentimes the study you intended to write is not exactly the study you end up with, and it is important that this section is clearly aligned with your actual results.

Another common issue with the Introduction that may negatively affect a research manuscript’s publication is the lack of a clear statement of purpose 1 . The reader, or journal editor, does not want to search for the meaning of the study. Therefore, make sure that your aim is explicitly stated near the end of the Introduction.

Your Introduction may also be judged by what should not be in it. Do not include data or conclusions in your Introduction. In addition, opinions or value judgements do not belong in the Introduction, or in any part of your research manuscript. Consider asking a colleague or friend to read it, as it is sometimes difficult to see this in your own writing.

Effective use of tables and figures

Visual elements such as tables and figures can add a lot of value to a research study manuscript, but their usefulness is often overlooked. Tables and figures, if used effectively, clarify points you make in the text and increase its clarity and overall reader engagement.

What does the effective use of tables and figures mean? It means the visuals are simple and understandable on their own. The title, along with any footnotes, captions, and comments, are enough of an explanation for the reader 1 . Try taking the table or figure out of the manuscript and looking at it alone. Better yet, show it to a few colleagues. Can they understand what the figure or table shows without any explanation from you? If not, simplify and clarify. Ideally, tables and figures should complement your text and break it up to increase readability. You can make your manuscript more publishable by putting some thought and effort into the visuals that you use.

words you should not use in a research paper

Discussion errors

The Discussion section is also fraught with improvement opportunities for research writers. For research manuscript writers, a weak discussion section is a common cause of publication failure 2 . What makes a weak discussion? Sometimes it comes from not understanding the difference between speculation and evidence-based conclusions 2 . Everything you present must be based on evidence. If you’re going to speculate or assume, make that clear in your writing. Furthermore, your conclusions should be situated in the context of the existing literature and your results analyzed based on the results of previous studies. Do not overstate the meaning of your results 1 .

In addition, authors often miss a few elements in their Discussion section that should be included, such as study limitations and a global context or meaning for the results. How do the results of your study and what you learned affect the discipline? How can they be useful to practitioners or other researchers? In addition, to tie the study together, the aim that was stated in the Introduction needs to be explicitly addressed. Don’t hide anything from the reader.

Overall writing quality

Finally, the best thing you can do to improve your research manuscript is to make it easy for your reader to understand. Consider clarity to be your main goal when writing. If you can clearly convey to your readers what you did and what the research results were, you show that you understand the topic and this helps build trust. If someone can’t follow your thinking because the manuscript is poorly written or too wordy, your study will ultimately lack impact. Always keep the reader in mind and make your study simple to understand.

One good way to check the writing quality is to read the paper aloud to yourself and listen to the words. When you read the same sentences repeatedly, you may tend to read what you intended to write, not what you actually wrote. Another good suggestion is to get a colleague or friend to read the paper and provide feedback.

  • Liumbruno GM, Velati C, Pasqualetti P, Franchini M. How to write a scientific manuscript for publication. Blood Transfus . 2013, 11:217-26. doi: 10.2450/2012.0247-12
  • Gewin V. How to write a first class paper. Nature . 2018, 555:129-30. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-02404-4

Related Reads:

  • Duplicate Publications: How to Avoid Overlapping Publications in Research
  • Confusing Elements of a Research Paper That Trip Up Most Academics
  • 3 Easy Ways for Researchers to Improve Their Academic Vocabulary
  • What is an Expository Essay and How to Write It

5 Steps to Reduce the Length of the Research Paper Without Losing Content

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Can You Use First-Person Pronouns (I/we) in a Research Paper?

words you should not use in a research paper

Research writers frequently wonder whether the first person can be used in academic and scientific writing. In truth, for generations, we’ve been discouraged from using “I” and “we” in academic writing simply due to old habits. That’s right—there’s no reason why you can’t use these words! In fact, the academic community used first-person pronouns until the 1920s, when the third person and passive-voice constructions (that is, “boring” writing) were adopted–prominently expressed, for example, in Strunk and White’s classic writing manual “Elements of Style” first published in 1918, that advised writers to place themselves “in the background” and not draw attention to themselves.

In recent decades, however, changing attitudes about the first person in academic writing has led to a paradigm shift, and we have, however, we’ve shifted back to producing active and engaging prose that incorporates the first person.

Can You Use “I” in a Research Paper?

However, “I” and “we” still have some generally accepted pronoun rules writers should follow. For example, the first person is more likely used in the abstract , Introduction section , Discussion section , and Conclusion section of an academic paper while the third person and passive constructions are found in the Methods section and Results section .

In this article, we discuss when you should avoid personal pronouns and when they may enhance your writing.

It’s Okay to Use First-Person Pronouns to:

  • clarify meaning by eliminating passive voice constructions;
  • establish authority and credibility (e.g., assert ethos, the Aristotelian rhetorical term referring to the personal character);
  • express interest in a subject matter (typically found in rapid correspondence);
  • establish personal connections with readers, particularly regarding anecdotal or hypothetical situations (common in philosophy, religion, and similar fields, particularly to explore how certain concepts might impact personal life. Additionally, artistic disciplines may also encourage personal perspectives more than other subjects);
  • to emphasize or distinguish your perspective while discussing existing literature; and
  • to create a conversational tone (rare in academic writing).

The First Person Should Be Avoided When:

  • doing so would remove objectivity and give the impression that results or observations are unique to your perspective;
  • you wish to maintain an objective tone that would suggest your study minimized biases as best as possible; and
  • expressing your thoughts generally (phrases like “I think” are unnecessary because any statement that isn’t cited should be yours).

Usage Examples

The following examples compare the impact of using and avoiding first-person pronouns.

Example 1 (First Person Preferred):

To understand the effects of global warming on coastal regions,  changes in sea levels, storm surge occurrences and precipitation amounts  were examined .

[Note: When a long phrase acts as the subject of a passive-voice construction, the sentence becomes difficult to digest. Additionally, since the author(s) conducted the research, it would be clearer to specifically mention them when discussing the focus of a project.]

We examined  changes in sea levels, storm surge occurrences, and precipitation amounts to understand how global warming impacts coastal regions.

[Note: When describing the focus of a research project, authors often replace “we” with phrases such as “this study” or “this paper.” “We,” however, is acceptable in this context, including for scientific disciplines. In fact, papers published the vast majority of scientific journals these days use “we” to establish an active voice.   Be careful when using “this study” or “this paper” with verbs that clearly couldn’t have performed the action.   For example, “we attempt to demonstrate” works, but “the study attempts to demonstrate” does not; the study is not a person.]

Example 2 (First Person Discouraged):

From the various data points  we have received ,  we observed  that higher frequencies of runoffs from heavy rainfall have occurred in coastal regions where temperatures have increased by at least 0.9°C.

[Note: Introducing personal pronouns when discussing results raises questions regarding the reproducibility of a study. However, mathematics fields generally tolerate phrases such as “in X example, we see…”]

Coastal regions  with temperature increases averaging more than 0.9°C  experienced  higher frequencies of runoffs from heavy rainfall.

[Note: We removed the passive voice and maintained objectivity and assertiveness by specifically identifying the cause-and-effect elements as the actor and recipient of the main action verb. Additionally, in this version, the results appear independent of any person’s perspective.] 

Example 3 (First Person Preferred):

In contrast to the study by Jones et al. (2001), which suggests that milk consumption is safe for adults, the Miller study (2005) revealed the potential hazards of ingesting milk.  The authors confirm  this latter finding.

[Note: “Authors” in the last sentence above is unclear. Does the term refer to Jones et al., Miller, or the authors of the current paper?]

In contrast to the study by Jones et al. (2001), which suggests that milk consumption is safe for adults, the Miller study (2005) revealed the potential hazards of ingesting milk.  We confirm  this latter finding.

[Note: By using “we,” this sentence clarifies the actor and emphasizes the significance of the recent findings reported in this paper. Indeed, “I” and “we” are acceptable in most scientific fields to compare an author’s works with other researchers’ publications. The APA encourages using personal pronouns for this context. The social sciences broaden this scope to allow discussion of personal perspectives, irrespective of comparisons to other literature.]

Other Tips about Using Personal Pronouns

  • Avoid starting a sentence with personal pronouns. The beginning of a sentence is a noticeable position that draws readers’ attention. Thus, using personal pronouns as the first one or two words of a sentence will draw unnecessary attention to them (unless, of course, that was your intent).
  • Be careful how you define “we.” It should only refer to the authors and never the audience unless your intention is to write a conversational piece rather than a scholarly document! After all, the readers were not involved in analyzing or formulating the conclusions presented in your paper (although, we note that the point of your paper is to persuade readers to reach the same conclusions you did). While this is not a hard-and-fast rule, if you do want to use “we” to refer to a larger class of people, clearly define the term “we” in the sentence. For example, “As researchers, we frequently question…”
  • First-person writing is becoming more acceptable under Modern English usage standards; however, the second-person pronoun “you” is still generally unacceptable because it is too casual for academic writing.
  • Take all of the above notes with a grain of salt. That is,  double-check your institution or target journal’s author guidelines .  Some organizations may prohibit the use of personal pronouns.
  • As an extra tip, before submission, you should always read through the most recent issues of a journal to get a better sense of the editors’ preferred writing styles and conventions.

Wordvice Resources

For more general advice on how to use active and passive voice in research papers, on how to paraphrase , or for a list of useful phrases for academic writing , head over to the Wordvice Academic Resources pages . And for more professional proofreading services , visit our Academic Editing and P aper Editing Services pages.

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If you have a friend who uses any of these 8 toxic phrases, it may be time to 'move on': Psychologist

thumbnail

Friends are the cornerstone of a fulfilling and happy life. But some friendships can veer into toxicity, leaving emotional scars that make us want to withdraw altogether. 

As a psychologist and expert in human connection, belonging and friendship, I help people recognize the signs of toxic relationships. But as my fellow friendship expert Danielle Bayard-Jackson argues, the most toxic friends often use crafty and underhanded forms of aggression. 

Here are eight phrases that will help you spot even subtle signs of a toxic friendship: 

1. 'You're too sensitive.'

When friends say "you're too sensitive," they imply that your feelings aren't valid and that there's something wrong with you for having them.

But expressing your emotions is a healthy part of any friendship, and being told you're too sensitive may indicate your friend lacks empathy. 

2. 'I was just joking. Can't you take a joke?'

Good friends are responsive and try to meet your needs. When you tell a friend you're hurt, responsiveness looks like them trying to understand why and adjusting their behavior. 

In a toxic friendship, they may instead say things like "Can't you take a joke?" as a defense to camouflage hurtful comments and avoid accountability. 

3. 'You're lucky to have me as a friend.'

Healthy friendships are built on equality. You're both invested and neither of you is viewed as better than the other.

If you constantly hear your friend asserting their superiority or suggesting you should be grateful for their presence, it may be a sign of an imbalanced relationship in which you're not valued. 

4. 'I miss the old you.'

Friends should allow you to be who you are, whether or not it fits their personal values, and encourage you to change and grow.

If your friend expresses discomfort with positive changes or, worse, undermines your progress, it could be a sign that you've outgrown the friendship or that your friend doesn't have your best interests in mind. 

5. 'You owe me.'

While reciprocity is important, if a friend expects you to repay everything they offer, it may mean they see the relationship as transactional.

As you get close to someone, you begin to include them in your sense of self, so what hurts them hurts you and what makes them happy makes you happy. That's why good friends feel comfortable being generous. 

6. 'I wonder why they gave you that promotion.'

Having a friend who downplays your accomplishments or tries to one-up your success (e.g., "Well I just got a big raise") undercuts your confidence and joy. 

In healthy friendships, friends engage in something called "capitalization," amplifying your joy by cheerfully exclaiming congratulations or taking you out to celebrate. 

7. 'I'm sorry you feel that way.'

True reconciliation requires each party to recognize the harm they caused. When a friend apologizes because you feel a certain way, they imply that the problem is your feelings rather than their behavior.

If expressing your concerns or setting boundaries is met with dismissive comments like this one, your friend isn't taking accountability for their impact on you. 

8. '...' (as in nothing, they just ghost you)

Losing a friendship often triggers something called "disenfranchised grief," an experience that occurs because society trivializes friendship and doesn't legitimize the gravity of the loss. That grief is compounded when you don't even know why a friend is pulling away.

Getting ghosted, one study found, makes you feel hurt and sad and lowers your self-esteem. Even if they want to end a friendship, friends should show regard for you by telling you explicitly. 

Diagnosing and dealing with a toxic friendship

Of course, no single phrase alone can diagnose a friendship as toxic. So be sure to consider these phrases within the larger dynamics by asking yourself questions like: 

  • Do they show up when I'm in need? 
  • Do they want the best for me? 
  • Is there a balance where each of our needs are met? 

If you find these phrases reflect a larger toxic dynamic, it may be a sign to pull back, set boundaries, or have an honest conversation and move on.

Marisa G. Franco is a psychologist, professor at The University of Maryland, and the New York Times bestselling author of " Platonic: How The Science of Attachment Can Help You Make — and Keep — Friends ." Her work has been featured in Psychology Today , The New York Times ,  The Telegraph and  Vice .

Want to land your dream job in 2024?  Take  CNBC's new online course How to Ace Your Job Interview  to learn what hiring managers are really looking for, body language techniques, what to say and not to say, and the best way to talk about pay.

I talked to 70 parents of highly successful adults: 4 phrases they never used while raising them

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Have COVID-19? Here’s How Long You Need to Isolate

Staying away from others isn’t the only thing you need to do if you test positive.

Rachel Nania,

You just tested positive for COVID-19. Now what?

It’s been more than four years since the coronavirus started circulating in the U.S., and in that time, the official guidance on what you should do to avoid catching and spreading it has changed. It’s no surprise, then, that there’s confusion on how long you need to stay home and away from others if you test positive for COVID-19.  

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Current guidelines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) say that if you have COVID, you should isolate from others for at least five days from the start of symptoms or a positive test. And if you need to go out in public during that time or interact with people, you should wear a mask .

Five days is not an arbitrary number, says William Schaffner, M.D., professor of preventive medicine and infectious diseases at Vanderbilt University School of Medicine. It’s the window when you are most contagious, he explains, and the whole point of isolating is “so that we don’t become spreaders of the virus to other people.”

When the five days are up, the advice on what to do next depends on any symptoms you had and whether they’re improving.

  • No symptoms or improving symptoms. People who tested positive for COVID-19 but didn’t have any symptoms can end isolation after day five. The same goes if you had symptoms but are feeling better and have been fever-free for at least 24 hours, without relying on any medicines to bring your fever down.
  • Persisting symptoms. If your infection brought on symptoms that are still lingering after day five, continue to isolate until your symptoms start improving and you are fever-free without medication for at least 24 hours.
  • Severe symptoms. People who had a more severe case of COVID — who experienced shortness of breath or difficulty breathing, or were hospitalized — should isolate for at least 10 days.

Regardless of when you end isolation, the CDC says that people who had COVID should wear a mask though day 10 from when your symptoms first started in order to avoid spreading the illness to others. Want to take your mask off early? Grab a few COVID tests . “With two sequential negative tests 48 hours apart, you may remove your mask sooner than day 10,” the CDC says.

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Don’t ignore treatment

Keeping the virus away from others is not the only thing to think about if you test positive for COVID-19. Treatment should also be top of mind, health experts say.

The virus is still sending more than 20,000 people in the U.S. to the hospital each week, according to federal data, and “at least half of the hospitalizations and deaths in people who are at high risk are in people who never [got treated],” says Paul Offit, M.D., an infectious disease physician at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia and author of the book Tell Me When It’s Over: An Insider’s Guide to Deciphering COVID Myths and Navigating our Post-Pandemic World.

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A recent study published in January found that only 12.2 percent of 309,755 patients eligible for Paxlovid received a prescription. Another study, yet to be peer reviewed, found that only 9.7 percent of more than 1 million high-risk patients received the treatment.

Paxlovid and other antiviral medications, like Lagevrio and Veklury, are recommended for older adults — who make up the majority of COVID-19 hospitalizations and deaths — and people with underlying health conditions, like heart disease or lung disease. These medications “work extremely well at mitigating symptoms and shortening the amount of time that people are sick, and how sick they feel while they have it,” says Jodie Guest, a professor and senior vice chair in the department of epidemiology at Emory University’s Rollins School of Public Health.

The key is starting these antiviral medications right away, Schaffner says — within the first five days of symptom onset. “We tend to say ‘Oh, I’ll see if it gets better tomorrow. I don’t want to bother the doctor with this,’” he says. “Do this as quickly as possible, because if you have either flu or COVID, instituting the treatments early gives you the best benefit. The longer you wait, the less effective the treatments are.”

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COVID remains a ‘significant burden’

It’s possible that the current guidelines could once again change as our approach to the coronavirus continues to evolve.

At this point, the majority of people in the population have built up some sort of immunity to COVID-19 , either through vaccination, infection or both, health experts say. If you come face-to-face with the virus again “your immune response should help protect you from severe illness and hospitalization,” according to the CDC.

Another factor that could influence a shift in guidelines is the idea that a shorter isolation period could encourage more people to test themselves and comply with recommendations.

“A lot of people are using [current] guidelines as a reason to not test,” says Guest, who notes that many people can’t take several days of unpaid sick leave or keep kids home from school for a week. “And so if people are not testing and they don’t know they have COVID-19, then they’re out and about and circulating in the community at a time when they’re infectious.”

However, if guidelines do ease in the future, Guest says it’s important to not dismiss the virus and to remember that “COVID is still a very significant burden of long-term illness and death.”

Another important point, Offit says, is to remember that it’s not just COVID-19 that can cause people to get seriously ill. Flu and RSV send hundreds of thousands of people to the hospital each year, too. The bottom line, he says, is to stay home if you’re sick. “Or if you can’t stay home because your work doesn’t allow you to stay home, then wear a mask.”

Rachel Nania is an award-winning health editor and writer at AARP.org, who covers a range of topics including diseases and treatments. 

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IMAGES

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COMMENTS

  1. Words and Phrases to Avoid in Academic Writing

    When you are writing a dissertation, thesis, or research paper, many words and phrases that are acceptable in conversations or informal writing are considered inappropriate in academic writing.

  2. Words Not To Use in a Research Paper

    Obviously. Such words are clumsy and redundant and can make your writing mumble. Here is a table that includes an overview, alternatives, and some unnecessary research paper words to avoid. What Else Should Be Avoided Apart from the words discussed above, there are other words students use in academic writing that are unnecessary.

  3. 164 Phrases and words You Should Never Use in an Essay—and the Powerful

    164 Phrases and words You Should Never Use in an Essay—and the Powerful Alternatives you Should February 13, 2020 by Vappingo This list of words you should never use in an essay will help you write compelling, succinct, and effective essays that impress your professor.

  4. The Most Important Words To Avoid in Academic Writing

    You should avoid personal pronouns like "I," "me," and "my" in almost all academic writing. In most cases, your work will be research- or evidence-based. Inserting yourself reduces your paper's credibility, as professors want ideas you can source. Even most opinion pieces should not contain personal pronouns.

  5. Avoid These Words and Phrases in Your Academic Writing

    Dictionary.com offers the following advice regarding contractions: Contractions such as isn't, couldn't, can't, weren't, he'll, they're occur chiefly, although not exclusively, in informal speech and writing. They are common in personal letters, business letters, journalism, and fiction; they are rare in scientific and scholarly writing.

  6. What is Formal Academic Writing: 104 Words to Use and Avoid

    To clarify; To simplify; Similarly; Likewise; Comparably; In parallel to. 3. To compare and contrast. Most of the time, formal academic writing assignments have differences of opinions to prove an argument, so it's very important to show all sides of an opinion with relevant research and sources.

  7. Avoid Fillers and Unnecessary Words in Writing

    Whether you are writing a research paper, a dissertation, or another kind of academic writing, creating sentences that are strong and concise is important in conveying your message and arguments to your audience.In this article on writing and editing for wordiness (i.e., how to reduce word count), we focus on something you may not know you are doing: using too many filler words.

  8. Words to Avoid in Writing

    Words to use instead: clearly, definitely, indeed, naturally, surely. 3. Thing. It seems when we do not know how to describe an object or phenomena, we use "thing.". Writing, especially in the academic realm, is about being specific. Using "thing" does not provide any specificity whatsoever.

  9. What Is Academic Writing?

    Knowledge Base Academic writing What Is Academic Writing? | Dos and Don'ts for Students Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications. You'll encounter it in journal articles and books on academic topics, and you'll be expected to write your essays, research papers, and dissertation in academic style.

  10. Do's and Don'ts for Research Writing

    But correcting grammar is a very simple fix, and can go a long way to help clean up your writing. 2. Don't make excuses for poor writing. "Scientists aren't known for being good writers, so it's ok if my writing isn't good either." "This paper doesn't count for much anyway, so it's ok if it doesn't make sense.". Yes, it ...

  11. PDF 1. Avoid Conversational Words & Phrases Avoid

    4. Avoid Writing "you" Avoid You should/should not … You might assume/believe/think … Certain genres use "you" to create a casual, conversational tone. If you are writing a blog or self-help article this works well. However, for a formal assignment, you should avoid directly addressing the reader. Writing Tip:

  12. Writing a Good Research Title: Things to Avoid

    Writing a Good Research Title: Things to Avoid By Enago Academy Dec 1, 2021 3 mins read 🔊 Listen (average: 5 out of 5. Total: 2) When writing manuscripts, too many scholars neglect the research title. This phrase, along with the abstract, is what people will mostly see and read online.

  13. Things to avoid to frame a good research paper title

    Avoid using shortened scientific names (write Escherichia coli and not coli). Try to wrap the title within 50 to 100 characters as shorter titles are cited more often. These steps would help a researcher to form an effective and relevant title for their research paper. A title should be interesting predicts the content of the research paper and ...

  14. Using Words Properly In Research Writing

    Use subsequently if you want to say that something occurred after something else: Cortical neurons were plated in 6-cm petri dishes. Subsequently, the cells were transferred to an incubator and left to settle. Here, subsequently is correct because putting the cells in the incubator is the next step in the protocol.

  15. PDF Strategies for Essay Writing

    • a substantial counterargument that you do not have space to refute; you should introduce counterarguments before your conclusion. • an apology for what you have not said. If you need to explain the scope of your paper, you should do this sooner—but don't apologize for what you have not discussed in your paper.

  16. 100+ Research Vocabulary Words & Phrases

    354,100 100+ Research Vocabulary Words & Phrases Wordvice The academic community can be conservative when it comes to enforcing academic writing style, but your writing shouldn't be so boring that people lose interest midway through the first paragraph!

  17. Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

    In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive. III. Diction Diction refers to the choice of words you use.

  18. 8 Types of Words Not to Use in an Essay (And Why You Shouldn't)

    Words such as "can't" and "mustn't" should not appear in your academic paper, even in the case where you have to write a persuasive essay in your own voice. You should write the words in full instead. 2. Personal Pronouns

  19. How To Avoid Using "We," "You," And "I" in an Essay

    One of the main rules of academic or formal writing is to avoid first-person pronouns like "we," "you," and "I." These words pull focus away from the topic and shift it to the speaker - the opposite of your goal. While it may seem difficult at first, some tricks can help you avoid personal language and keep a professional tone.

  20. How to Avoid Repetition and Redundancy in Academic Writing

    Vary the structure and length of your sentences. Don't use the same pronoun to reference more than one antecedent (e.g. " They asked whether they were ready for them") Avoid repetition of particular sounds or words (e.g. " Several shelves sheltered similar sets of shells ") Avoid redundancies (e.g " In the year 2019 " instead of ...

  21. Should I Use "I"?

    Each essay should have exactly five paragraphs. Don't begin a sentence with "and" or "because.". Never include personal opinion. Never use "I" in essays. We get these ideas primarily from teachers and other students. Often these ideas are derived from good advice but have been turned into unnecessarily strict rules in our minds.

  22. 50 Useful Academic Words & Phrases for Research

    When writing an academic text-whether it is a book report, annotated bibliography, research paper, research poster, lab report, research proposal, thesis, or manuscript for publication-authors must follow academic writing conventions.

  23. Can You Use I or We in a Research Paper?

    11th July 2023 Can You Use I or We in a Research Paper? Writing in the first person, or using I and we pronouns, has traditionally been frowned upon in academic writing. But despite this long-standing norm, writing in the first person isn't actually prohibited. In fact, it's becoming more acceptable - even in research papers.

  24. How to Write a Research Manuscript without Overlooking Key Elements

    One good way to check the writing quality is to read the paper aloud to yourself and listen to the words. When you read the same sentences repeatedly, you may tend to read what you intended to write, not what you actually wrote. Another good suggestion is to get a colleague or friend to read the paper and provide feedback. References

  25. Can You Use First-Person Pronouns (I/we) in a Research Paper?

    However, "I" and "we" still have some generally accepted pronoun rules writers should follow. For example, the first person is more likely used in the abstract, Introduction section, Discussion section, and Conclusion section of an academic paper while the third person and passive constructions are found in the Methods section and ...

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