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MLA Formatting and Style Guide

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MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. This resource, updated to reflect the MLA Handbook (9 th ed.), offers examples for the general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the Works Cited page.

The following overview should help you better understand how to cite sources using MLA  9 th edition, including how to format the Works Cited page and in-text citations.

Please use the example at the bottom of this page to cite the Purdue OWL in MLA. See also our MLA vidcast series on the Purdue OWL YouTube Channel .

Creating a Works Cited list using the ninth edition

MLA is a style of documentation that may be applied to many different types of writing. Since texts have become increasingly digital, and the same document may often be found in several different sources, following a set of rigid rules no longer suffices.

Thus, the current system is based on a few guiding principles, rather than an extensive list of specific rules. While the handbook still describes how to cite sources, it is organized according to the process of documentation, rather than by the sources themselves. This gives writers a flexible method that is near-universally applicable.

Once you are familiar with the method, you can use it to document any type of source, for any type of paper, in any field.

Here is an overview of the process:

When deciding how to cite your source, start by consulting the list of core elements. These are the general pieces of information that MLA suggests including in each Works Cited entry. In your citation, the elements should be listed in the following order:

  • Title of source.
  • Title of container,
  • Other contributors,
  • Publication date,

Each element should be followed by the corresponding punctuation mark shown above. Earlier editions of the handbook included the place of publication and required different punctuation (such as journal editions in parentheses and colons after issue numbers) depending on the type of source. In the current version, punctuation is simpler (only commas and periods separate the elements), and information about the source is kept to the basics.

Begin the entry with the author’s last name, followed by a comma and the rest of the name, as presented in the work. End this element with a period.

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.

Title of source

The title of the source should follow the author’s name. Depending upon the type of source, it should be listed in italics or quotation marks.

A book should be in italics:

Henley, Patricia. The Hummingbird House . MacMurray, 1999.

An individual webpage should be in quotation marks. The name of the parent website, which MLA treats as a "container," should follow in italics:

Lundman, Susan. "How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow, www.ehow.com/how_10727_make-vegetarian-chili.html.*

A periodical (journal, magazine, newspaper) article should be in quotation marks:

Bagchi, Alaknanda. "Conflicting Nationalisms: The Voice of the Subaltern in Mahasweta Devi's Bashai Tudu." Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature , vol. 15, no. 1, 1996, pp. 41-50.

A song or piece of music on an album should be in quotation marks. The name of the album should then follow in italics:

Beyoncé. "Pray You Catch Me." Lemonade, Parkwood Entertainment, 2016, www.beyonce.com/album/lemonade-visual-album/.

*The MLA handbook recommends including URLs when citing online sources. For more information, see the “Optional Elements” section below.

Title of container

The eighth edition of the MLA handbook introduced what are referred to as "containers," which are the larger wholes in which the source is located. For example, if you want to cite a poem that is listed in a collection of poems, the individual poem is the source, while the larger collection is the container. The title of the container is usually italicized and followed by a comma, since the information that follows next describes the container.

Kincaid, Jamaica. "Girl." The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories, edited by Tobias Wolff, Vintage, 1994, pp. 306-07.

The container may also be a television series, which is made up of episodes.

“94 Meetings.” Parks and Recreation, created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur, performance by Amy Poehler, season 2, episode 21, Deedle-Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios, 2010.

The container may also be a website, which contains articles, postings, and other works.

Wise, DeWanda. “Why TV Shows Make Me Feel Less Alone.”  NAMI,  31 May 2019,  www.nami.org/Blogs/NAMI-Blog/May-2019/How-TV-Shows-Make-Me-Feel-Less-Alone . Accessed 3 June 2019.

In some cases, a container might be within a larger container. You might have read a book of short stories on Google Books , or watched a television series on Netflix . You might have found the electronic version of a journal on JSTOR. It is important to cite these containers within containers so that your readers can find the exact source that you used.

“94 Meetings.” Parks and Recreation , season 2, episode 21, NBC , 29 Apr. 2010. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/70152031?trackId=200256157&tctx=0%2C20%2C0974d361-27cd-44de-9c2a-2d9d868b9f64-12120962.

Langhamer, Claire. “Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth-Century England.” Historical Journal , vol. 50, no. 1, 2007, pp. 173-96. ProQuest, doi:10.1017/S0018246X06005966. Accessed 27 May 2009.

Other contributors

In addition to the author, there may be other contributors to the source who should be credited, such as editors, illustrators, translators, etc. If their contributions are relevant to your research, or necessary to identify the source, include their names in your documentation.

Foucault, Michel. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. Translated by Richard Howard , Vintage-Random House, 1988.

Woolf, Virginia. Jacob’s Room . Annotated and with an introduction by Vara Neverow, Harcourt, Inc., 2008.

If a source is listed as an edition or version of a work, include it in your citation.

The Bible . Authorized King James Version, Oxford UP, 1998.

Crowley, Sharon, and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. 3rd ed., Pearson, 2004.

If a source is part of a numbered sequence, such as a multi-volume book or journal with both volume and issue numbers, those numbers must be listed in your citation.

Dolby, Nadine. “Research in Youth Culture and Policy: Current Conditions and Future Directions.” Social Work and Society: The International Online-Only Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, 2008, www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/60/362. Accessed 20 May 2009.

Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Translated by H. E. Butler, vol. 2, Loeb-Harvard UP, 1980.

The publisher produces or distributes the source to the public. If there is more than one publisher, and they are all are relevant to your research, list them in your citation, separated by a forward slash (/).

Klee, Paul. Twittering Machine. 1922. Museum of Modern Art, New York. The Artchive, www.artchive.com/artchive/K/klee/twittering_machine.jpg.html. Accessed May 2006.

Women's Health: Problems of the Digestive System . American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2006.

Daniels, Greg and Michael Schur, creators. Parks and Recreation . Deedle-Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios, 2015.

Note : The publisher’s name need not be included in the following sources: periodicals, works published by their author or editor, websites whose titles are the same name as their publisher, websites that make works available but do not actually publish them (such as  YouTube ,  WordPress , or  JSTOR ).

Publication date

The same source may have been published on more than one date, such as an online version of an original source. For example, a television series might have aired on a broadcast network on one date, but released on  Netflix  on a different date. When the source has more than one date, it is sufficient to use the date that is most relevant to your writing. If you’re unsure about which date to use, go with the date of the source’s original publication.

In the following example, Mutant Enemy is the primary production company, and “Hush” was released in 1999. Below is a general citation for this television episode:

“Hush.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer , created by Joss Whedon, performance by Sarah Michelle Gellar, season 4, Mutant Enemy, 1999 .

However, if you are discussing, for example, the historical context in which the episode originally aired, you should cite the full date. Because you are specifying the date of airing, you would then use WB Television Network (rather than Mutant Enemy), because it was the network (rather than the production company) that aired the episode on the date you’re citing.

“Hush.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer, created by Joss Whedon, performance by Sarah Michelle Gellar, season 4, episode 10, WB Television Network, 14 Dec. 1999 .

You should be as specific as possible in identifying a work’s location.

An essay in a book or an article in a journal should include page numbers.

Adiche, Chimamanda Ngozi. “On Monday of Last Week.” The Thing around Your Neck, Alfred A. Knopf, 2009, pp. 74-94 .

The location of an online work should include a URL.  Remove any "http://" or "https://" tag from the beginning of the URL.

Wheelis, Mark. "Investigating Disease Outbreaks Under a Protocol to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention." Emerging Infectious Diseases , vol. 6, no. 6, 2000, pp. 595-600, wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/6/6/00-0607_article. Accessed 8 Feb. 2009.

When citing a physical object that you experienced firsthand, identify the place of location.

Matisse, Henri. The Swimming Pool. 1952, Museum of Modern Art, New York .

Optional elements

The ninth edition is designed to be as streamlined as possible. The author should include any information that helps readers easily identify the source, without including unnecessary information that may be distracting. The following is a list of optional elements that can be included in a documented source at the writer’s discretion.

Date of original publication:

If a source has been published on more than one date, the writer may want to include both dates if it will provide the reader with necessary or helpful information.

Erdrich, Louise. Love Medicine. 1984. Perennial-Harper, 1993.

City of publication:

The seventh edition handbook required the city in which a publisher is located, but the eighth edition states that this is only necessary in particular instances, such as in a work published before 1900. Since pre-1900 works were usually associated with the city in which they were published, your documentation may substitute the city name for the publisher’s name.

Thoreau, Henry David. Excursions . Boston, 1863.

Date of access:

When you cite an online source, the MLA Handbook recommends including a date of access on which you accessed the material, since an online work may change or move at any time.

Bernstein, Mark. "10 Tips on Writing the Living Web." A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 16 Aug. 2002, alistapart.com/article/writeliving. Accessed 4 May 2009.

As mentioned above, while the MLA handbook recommends including URLs when you cite online sources, you should always check with your instructor or editor and include URLs at their discretion.

A DOI, or digital object identifier, is a series of digits and letters that leads to the location of an online source. Articles in journals are often assigned DOIs to ensure that the source is locatable, even if the URL changes. If your source is listed with a DOI, use that instead of a URL.

Alonso, Alvaro, and Julio A. Camargo. "Toxicity of Nitrite to Three Species of Freshwater Invertebrates." Environmental Toxicology , vol. 21, no. 1, 3 Feb. 2006, pp. 90-94. Wiley Online Library, doi: 10.1002/tox.20155.

Creating in-text citations using the previous (eighth) edition

Although the MLA handbook is currently in its ninth edition, some information about citing in the text using the older (eighth) edition is being retained. The in-text citation is a brief reference within your text that indicates the source you consulted. It should properly attribute any ideas, paraphrases, or direct quotations to your source, and should direct readers to the entry in the Works Cited list. For the most part, an in-text citation is the  author’s name and the page number (or just the page number, if the author is named in the sentence) in parentheses :

When creating in-text citations for media that has a runtime, such as a movie or podcast, include the range of hours, minutes and seconds you plan to reference. For example: (00:02:15-00:02:35).

Again, your goal is to attribute your source and provide a reference without interrupting your text. Your readers should be able to follow the flow of your argument without becoming distracted by extra information.

MLA handbook for writers of research papers

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“I’ve been using the  MLA Handbook  since my student years. The new ninth edition is an essential reference work for scholars.” —Viet Thanh Nguyen, MLA member, Pulitzer Prize–winning author, and professor at University of Southern California
  • Description

View our convenient chart comparing the eighth and ninth editions of the  MLA Handbook .

Relied on by generations of writers, the MLA Handbook is published by the Modern Language Association and is the only official, authorized book on MLA style. The new, ninth edition builds on the MLA’s unique approach to documenting sources using a template of core elements—facts, common to most sources, like author, title, and publication date—that allows writers to cite any type of work, from books, e-books, and journal articles in databases to song lyrics, online images, social media posts, dissertations, and more. With this focus on source evaluation as the cornerstone of citation, MLA style promotes the skills of information and digital literacy so crucial today. 

The many new and updated chapters make this edition the comprehensive, go-to resource for writers of research papers, and anyone citing sources, from business writers, technical writers, and freelance writers and editors to student writers and the teachers and librarians working with them. Intended for a variety of classroom contexts—middle school, high school, and college courses in composition, communication, literature, language arts, film, media studies, digital humanities, and related fields—the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook offers 

  • New chapters on grammar, punctuation, capitalization, spelling, numbers, italics, abbreviations, and principles of inclusive language
  • Guidelines on setting up research papers in MLA format with updated advice on headings, lists, and title pages for group projects
  • Revised, comprehensive, step-by-step instructions for creating a list of works cited  in MLA format that are easier to learn and use than ever before
  • A new appendix with hundreds of example works-cited-list entries by publication format, including Web sites, YouTube videos, interviews, and more
  • Detailed examples of how to find publication information for a variety of sources
  • Newly revised explanations of in-text citations, including comprehensive advice on how to cite multiple authors of a single work
  • Detailed guidance on footnotes and endnotes 
  • Instructions on quoting, paraphrasing, summarizing, and avoiding plagiarism 
  • A sample essay in MLA format
  • Annotated bibliography examples
  • Numbered sections throughout for quick navigation
  • Advanced tips for professional writers and scholars
  • Writing and Research Guides
  • Publishing and Editing

Preface (xvii)

Acknowledgments (xix)

Introduction (xxi)  

1. Formatting Your Research Project ( 1)

[1.1]  Margins (1)

[1.2]  Text Formatting (1)

[1.3]  Title (2)  

[1.4]  Running Head and Page Numbers (4)

[1.5]  Internal Headings and Subheadings (4)

[1.6]  Placement of the List of Works Cited (5)  

[1.7]  Tables and Illustrations (6)

[1.8]  Lists (9)

[1.9] Integrated into Your Prose (9) 

[1.10] Set Vertically (10)

[1.11] Lists introduced with a complete sentence (10)

[1.12] Lists that continue the sentence introducing them (12)

[1.13]  Paper and Printing (13)

[1.14]  Proofreading and Spellcheckers (13)

[1.15]  Binding a Printed Paper (13)  

[1.16]  Electronic Submission (14)

2. Mechanics of Prose (15)

[2.1] Spelling (15)

[2.2] Dictionaries (15)

[2.3] Plurals (15)

[2.4]  Punctuation (16)

[2.5] Commas (16)

[2.6] When a comma is necessary (17)

[2.7]  Before a coordinating conjunction joining independent clauses  (17)

[2.8]  Between coordinate adjectives  (17)

[2.9]  To set off parenthetical comments  (18)

[2.10]  After long introductory phrases and clauses  (18)

[2.11]  With contrasting phrases  (18)

[2.12]  In series  (19)

[2.13]  With dates and locations  (19)  

[2.14]  With nonrestrictive modifiers  (20) 

[2.15] When a comma is incorrect (22)  

[2.16]  Subject and verb  (22)

[2.17]  Verb and object  (22)

[2.18]  Parts of a compound subject  (22)  

[2.19]  Parts of a compound object  (23)  

[2.20]  Two verbs that share a subject  (23)  

[2.21]  Two subordinate elements that are parallel  (23)

[2.22] When a comma is optional (23)

[2.23]  With short introductory phrases and clauses  (23)  

[2.24]  Around specific words  (24)

[2.25]  Before some coordinating conjunctions  (24)

[2.26] Semicolons (24)  

[2.27] Colons (25)

[2.28] Dashes and Parentheses (26) 

[2.29] To enclose an interruption (27) 

[2.30] To prevent misreading (27)

[2.31] To introduce an elaboration or an example (27)

[2.32] To introduce a list (27)

[2.33] Hyphens (28)

[2.34] When to hyphenate compound adjectives before a noun (28)

[2.35] Adverbs  (28)

[2.36]  Number-noun combinations  (28)

[2.37]  Prepositional phrases  (29)

[2.38]  Clarity  (29)

[2.39] When not to hyphenate compound adjectives before a noun (29)

[2.40]  Adverbs  (29)

[2.41]  Comparatives and superlatives  (30)

[2.42]  Familiar compound terms  (30)  

[2.43]  Foreign language terms  (30)  

[2.44]  Proper nouns  (31) 

[2.45] Hyphens before suppressed words (31) 

[2.46] Hyphens with prefixes (31)

[2.47] Hyphens in fractions (32)

[2.48] Hyphens versus en dashes (32)  

[2.49] Apostrophes (33)

[2.50] Singular and plural nouns (33)

[2.51] Proper nouns (33)

[2.52] Nouns expressing shared possession (34)

[2.53] Letters (34)

[2.54] Plural abbreviations and numbers (34)

[2.55] Quotation Marks (34)

[2.56] To flag provisional meaning (35) 

[2.57] To mark translations of words or phrases (35)

[2.58] Slashes (35)

[2.59] Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Points (36)

[2.60] Italics in Prose (36)

[2.61] Words and Phrases Referred to as Words (36)

[2.62] Letters Referred to as Letters (37)

[2.63] Foreign Words in an English-Language Text (37)

[2.64] Capitalization of Terms (37)

[2.65] English (37)

[2.66] French (38)

[2.67] German (39)

[2.68] Italian (39)

[2.69] Spanish (40)

[2.70] Latin (40)

[2.71] Names of Persons in Your Prose (41)

[2.72] First Uses of Personal Names (41)

[2.73] Surnames Used Alone (43)

[2.74] English (43)

[2.75] French (44)

[2.76] German (45) 

[2.77] Italian (45)

[2.78] Spanish (46)

[2.79] Latin (47)

[2.80] Asian languages (47)

[2.81] Premodern names (48)

[2.82] Transliterated Names (48)

[2.83] Titles with Personal Names (49)

[2.84] Suffixes with Personal Names (50)

[2.85] Given Names and Personal Initials (50)

[2.86] Names of Fictional Characters (51)

[2.87] Names of Organizations and Groups (51)

[2.88] Names of Literary Periods and Cultural Movements (52)

[2.89] Titles of Works in Your Prose (53)

[2.90] Capitalizing Titles in English (54)

[2.91] Capitalizing Titles in Languages Other Than English (56)

[2.92] French (56)

[2.93] German (57)

[2.94] Italian (57)

[2.95] Spanish (57)

[2.96] Latin (58)

[2.97] Other languages in the Latin alphabet (58)

[2.98] Languages in non-Latin alphabets (58)

[2.99] Punctuation of Titles (59)

[2.100] Serial comma (59)

[2.101] Subtitles (61)

[2.102] Alternative titles (62)

[2.103] Dates appended to titles (64)

[2.104] Multivolume works (64)

[2.105] Punctuation around Titles (65)

[2.106] Styling Titles (66)

[2.107] Italicized titles (66)

[2.108] Italicized titles of works contained in a larger work (69) 

[2.109] Titles in quotation marks (70)

[2.110] Titles with no formatting (71)

[2.111] Titles within Titles (73)

[2.112] Surrounding title in quotation marks (73)

[2.113] Surrounding title in italics (75)

[2.114] Surrounding title with no formatting (76)  

[2.115] Quotations within Titles (77)

[2.116] Foreign Language Terms and Titles within Titles (77)

[2.117] Styling (77)

[2.118] Capitalization (78) 

[2.119] Titles within titles (79)

[2.120] Shortened Titles in Your Prose (79)

[2.121] Subtitles (79)

[2.122] Conventional forms of titles (80)

[2.123] Very long titles (80)

[2.124] Punctuating shortened titles (80)

[2.125] Translating Titles in Languages Other Than English (81)

[2.126] Numbers (82)

[2.127] Use of Numerals or Words (82)

[2.128] Number-heavy contexts (82) 

[2.129] Street addresses (83)

[2.130] Decimal fractions (83)

[2.131] Percentages and amounts of money (83)

[2.132] Items in numbered series (84)

[2.133] Large numbers (84) 

[2.134] Plural forms (84)

[2.135] At the start of a sentence (84)

[2.136] In titles (85)

[2.137] Commas in Numbers (86)

[2.138] Dates and Times (86)

[2.139] Number Ranges (87)

3. Principles of Inclusive Language (89)

4. Documenting Sources: An Overview (95)

[4.1] Why Plagiarism Is a Serious Matter (96)

[4.2] Avoiding Plagiarism (97)

[4.3] Careful Research (97)

[4.4] Giving Credit (98)

[4.5] Paraphrasing (98)

[4.6]  When to paraphrase  (98)

[4.7]  How to paraphrase  (99)

[4.8]  How to paraphrase and give credit  (99)

[4.9] Quoting (100)

[4.10]  When to quote  (100)  

[4.11]  How to quote and give credit  (100)

[4.12] When Documentation Is Not Needed (101)

[4.13] Common Knowledge (101)

[4.14] Passing Mentions (102)

[4.15] Allusions (102)

[4.16] Epigraphs (102)

5. The List of Works Cited (105)

[5.1] Creating and Formatting Entries: An Overview (105)

[5.2] The MLA Core Elements (107)

[5.3] Author: What It Is (107)

[5.4] Author: Where to Find It (108)  

[5.5] Author: How to Style It (111) 

[5.6] One author (111)

[5.7] Two authors (111)

[5.8] Three or more authors (112)

[5.9] Names not reversed (113)

[5.10]  Languages that order surname first  (113)  

[5.11]  Lack of surname  (114)

[5.12] Variant forms of a personal name (115)

[5.13]  Different spellings  (115)

[5.14]  Pseudonyms and name changes  (115)

[5.15] When not to supply information, cross-reference, or use the published form of a name (117)

[5.16]  Online handles  (118)

[5.17] Organizations, groups, and government authors (119)

[5.18]  Listing by name  (119)

[5.19]  Avoiding redundancy  (119)

[5.20]  Government authors  (120) 

[5.21] Standardizing and supplying information (120)

[5.22] Consolidating entries (120)

[5.23] Title of Source: What It Is (121)

[5.24] Title of Source: Where to Find It (125)

[5.25] Title of Source: How to Style It (130)

[5.26] Shortened titles (130)

[5.27] Sections of a work labeled generically (130) 

[5.28] Description in place of a title (132)

[5.29] Quoted text in place of a title (132)

[5.30] Translations of titles (133)

[5.31] Title of Container: What It Is (134)

[5.32] Works that are self-contained (135)

[5.33] Works with more than one container (135)

[5.34] Determining when a website is a container (136)

[5.35] Apps and databases (138)

[5.36] Title of Container: Where to Find It (140)

[5.37] Title of Container: How to Style It (145)  

[5.38] Contributor: What It Is (145)

[5.39] Key contributors (146)

[5.40] Key contributors in the Author element (147)

[5.41] Other types of contributors (148)

[5.42] Contributor: Where to Find It (149) 

[5.43] Contributor: How to Style It (151)

[5.44] Labels describing the contributor’s role (151)

[5.45] Capitalization of labels (153)

[5.46] Multiple contributors in the same role (153)

[5.47] Repeated personal names in an entry (153)  

[5.48] Version: What It Is (154)

[5.49] Version: Where to Find It (155)

[5.50] Version: How to Style It (157)

[5.51] Number: What It Is (158)

[5.52] Number: Where to Find It (159)

[5.53] Number: How to Style It (164)

[5.54] Publisher: What It Is (164)

[5.55] Publisher: Where to Find It (166)

[5.56] Books (166)

[5.57] Websites (167)

[5.58] Audio and visual media (168)

[5.59] Publisher: How to Style It (169)

[5.60] Capitalization (169)

[5.61] Copublishers (170)

[5.62] Divisions of nongovernment organizations as publishers (170)

[5.63] Government agencies as publishers (171)

[5.64] Terms omitted from publishers’ names (172)

[5.65] Common abbreviations in publishers’ names (172)

[5.66] Ampersands and plus signs in publishers’ names (172)

[5.67] City of publication (172)

[5.68] Publication Date: What It Is (173)

[5.69] Publication Date: Where to Find It (174)

[5.70] Books (174)

[5.71] E-books (176)

[5.72] News articles (177) 

[5.73] Journal articles (178)

[5.74] Music (180)

[5.75] Government documents (182)

[5.76] Television episodes (184)

[5.77] Publication Date: How to Style It (185) 

[5.78] Year (185)

[5.79] Season (185)

[5.80] Time (185)

[5.81] Date range (186)

[5.82] Approximate date given in source (186)

[5.83] Uncertain date given in source (186)

[5.84] Location: What It Is (187)

[5.85] Location: Where to Find It (189)

[5.86] Page numbers (189)

[5.87] Online works (189)

[5.88] Location: How to Style It (189)

[5.89] Inclusive pages (189)

[5.90] Descriptive label before page numbers (193)

[5.91] Numerals for page numbers (193)

[5.92] Plus sign with page number (193)

[5.93] DOIs (194)

[5.94] Permalinks (195)

[5.95] URLs (195)

[5.96]  Truncating  (195)

[5.97]  Breaking  (196)

[5.98]  Including terminal slash  (196)

[5.99] Physical locations and events (197)

[5.100] The Three Most Common Types of Entries (197)

[5.101] Works in One Container (198)

[5.102] Works in Two Containers (200)

[5.103] Works That Are Self-Contained (204)

[5.104] One Work Cited Different Ways (207)

[5.105] Supplemental Elements (208)

[5.106] Placement after Title of Source (208)

[5.107] Contributor (208)

[5.108] Original publication date (209)

[5.109] Section of a work labeled generically (210)

[5.110] Placement at End of Entry (210)

[5.111] Date of access (211)

[5.112] Medium of publication (211) 

[5.113] Dissertations and theses (214)

[5.114] Publication history (214)

[5.115] Book series (214)

[5.116] Columns, sections, and other recurring titled features (215)

[5.117] Multivolume works (215)

[5.118] Government documents (216)

[5.119] Placement between Containers (217) 

[5.120] Punctuation of Entries (217)  

[5.121] More Than One Item in an Element (217)

[5.122] Supplied Publication Information (218)

[5.123] Ordering the List of Works Cited (219)

[5.124] Alphabetizing: An Overview (219)

[5.125] Alphabetizing by Author (221) 

[5.126] Multiple works by one author (221)

[5.127] Multiple works by two authors (222)

[5.128] Multiple works by more than two authors (222)

[5.129] Multiple works by a single author and coauthors (223)

[5.130] Alphabetizing by Title (224)

[5.131] Cross-References (225)

[5.132] Annotated Bibliographies (226)

6. Citing Sources in the Text (227)

[6.1] In-Text Citations (227)

[6.2] Overview (227)

[6.3] What to Include and How to Style It (230)

[6.4] Citing a work listed by author (230)

[6.5]  Coauthors  (232)

[6.6]  Corporate authors  (233)

[6.7]  Two authors with the same surname  (234)

[6.8]  Two or more works by the same author or authors  (235)

[6.9] Citing a work listed by title (237)

[6.10] Shortening titles of works (237)

[6.11]  Titles in quotation marks that start with a title in  quotation marks  (238)

[6.12]  Titles in quotation marks that start with a quotation  (239)

[6.13]  Using abbreviations for titles of works  (240) 

[6.14]  Shortening descriptions used in place of titles  (240)

[6.15] When author and title are not enough (241)

[6.16] Page numbers and other divisions of works (242)

[6.17]  One-page works  (242)

[6.18]  Quotations spanning two or more pages of a work  (242)

[6.19]  Quotations from a nonconsecutively paginated work  (243)

[6.20]  Numbered paragraphs, sections, and lines  (244)

[6.21]  Commonly cited works  (244)

[6.22] Verse works (245)

[6.23] Prose works (246)

[6.24] Ancient and medieval works (247)

[6.25] Scripture (247)

[6.26]  Works without numbered pages or divisions  (248)

[6.27]  Volume numbers for multivolume nonperiodical works  (249)

[6.28]  Time stamps  (250)

[6.29]  Numbered notes in your source  (250)

[6.30] Punctuation in the parenthetical citation (250)

[6.31] Quoting and Paraphrasing Sources (252)

[6.32] Integrating Quotations into Prose (253)

[6.33] Prose works (253)

[6.34]  Short quotations  (253)

[6.35]  Long quotations (block quotations)  (254)

[6.36] Poetry (255)

[6.37]  Short quotations  (255)

[6.38]  Long quotations (block quotations)  (256)

[6.39] Dialogue (258)

[6.40]  Drama  (258)

[6.41]  Prose  (259)

[6.42]  Poetry  (260)

[6.43] Placement of Parenthetical Citations (260)

[6.44] Consolidating citations (261)

[6.45]  References to a single source  (262)

[6.46]  References to multiple works citing the same idea  (262)

[6.47] Omitting Citations for Repeated Quotations and Terms (263)

[6.48] Punctuation with Quotations (264)

[6.49] Introducing quotations (264)

[6.50] Quotations within quotations (265)

[6.51] Marking the end of a quotation (266)

[6.52]  Periods and commas  (266)

[6.53]  Other punctuation marks  (267)

[6.54] Capitalization with Quotations (268)

[6.55] When to capitalize (268)

[6.56] When to lowercase (270)

[6.57] When to follow the case of your source (271)

[6.58] Using an Ellipsis to Mark Material Omitted from Quotations (272)  

[6.59] Omission within a sentence (272)

[6.60] Omission in a quotation of one or more sentences (273)

[6.61] Omission in a quotation of poetry (274)

[6.62] An ellipsis in the source (275)

[6.63] Other Permissible Alterations of Quotations (276)

[6.64] Emphasis (276)

[6.65] Errors in the source (276)

[6.66] Clarification (277)

[6.67] Syntax (278)

[6.68] What Not to Reproduce from Your Source (279)

[6.69] Languages Other Than Modern English (280)

[6.70] Accents (280)

[6.71] Umlauts (280)

[6.72] Ligatures (280)

[6.73] Letters in older languages (281)

[6.74] Orthography (spelling) (281)

[6.75] Translations of quotations (bilingual quotations) (281)

[6.76] Quotations from languages in non-Latin alphabets (283)

[6.77] Indirect Sources (284)

[6.78] Citations in Forms Other Than Print (285)

[6.79] Slides (285)

[6.80] Videos (285)

[6.81] Web Projects (286)

[6.82] Oral Presentations (286)

7. Notes (287)  

[7.1] Bibliographic Notes (287)

[7.2] Content Notes (288)

[7.3] Styling of Notes (290)

[7.4] Placement of Notes in the Text (291)

Appendix 1: Abbreviations ( 293)

Punctuation (293)

Common Academic Abbreviations (294)

Months (295)

Titles of Works (295)

Appendix 2: Works-Cited-List Entries by Publication Format (303)

Appendix Contents (303)

Work-Cited-List Entries (313)

Index (347)

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G ibaldi , J oseph . MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers . New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 2003. 6th edn. xvii + 361 pp. $17. ISBN 0–87352–986–3

  • Article contents
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G ibaldi , J oseph . MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers . New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 2003. 6th edn. xvii + 361 pp. $17. ISBN 0–87352–986–3, Forum for Modern Language Studies , Volume 42, Issue 1, January 2006, Page 95, https://doi.org/10.1093/fmls/cqi046

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The latest edition of the widely-used guide to writing research papers includes a new section on plagiarism, and revamped and extended advice on using electronic resources. The format has been streamlined to make it clearer; there are new annotated illustrations of actual print and electronic sources, and advice on the use and citation of articles from subscription databases such as EBSCO, and on what to do when the URL (the uniform resource locator, or network address) is very long and has local and thus irrelevant features generally involving a string of numbers and percentage signs (you should limit it to the main source, such as the database or the journal's webpage). The stress remains on practicalities, with the first chapter devoted to the beginnings of research (selecting a topic, using libraries and electronic sources, including advice on how to evaluate Internet data); the second on plagiarism and how to avoid it; and chapters 3 to 7 covering in detail aspects such as spelling, punctuation, citations and preparing a bibliography. A useful tool for undergraduates and early postgraduates doing dissertations.

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MLA Guide (7th edition)

The examples provided in this guide are meant to introduce you to the basics of citing sources using the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (seventh edition). For types of resources not included in this guide (e.g., government documents, manuscript collections, video recordings) and for further information about the examples included below, please consult the MLA Handbook itself , and/or a Reference Librarian . For help with layout, margins, spacing and page numbering, see the MLA Handbook (Fig. 12, page 131). Consider using RefWorks to help you track your research and automatically create a bibliography in MLA style.

If you need help with the current version of MLA, please see the guide for MLA ( 8th edition, 2016). If you are unsure which version of MLA to use, please consult with your professor.

Table of Contents:

Parenthetical Documentation Preparing the List of Works Cited A Brief Note on Footnotes and Endnotes For More Help

PARENTHETICAL DOCUMENTATION

When using MLA documentation style, you need to reference your sources by using a combination of a list of works cited (see below) and parenthetical notation . Whenever you refer to or use another's words, facts or ideas in your paper, you are required to cite the source. Generally, brief parenthetical notations consisting of the author's last name and a page reference are sufficient. For example: (Drucker 30) .

Note: If you mention the author in your sentence, then you need only cite the page number . And if you cite more than one work by the same author , include the title of the work in your notation. For example: (Drucker, Management Cases 30) .

1. ONE AUTHOR

The character Folly denies satirizing Christianity when she says, "it is no part of my present plan to rummage through the lives of popes and priests," yet she spends much of her encomium doing just that (Erasmus 115).

2. TWO OR MORE AUTHORS

Max Weber purported that value systems could be studied "without the social scientist's own values distorting such studies" (Keat and Urry 196).

According to Russell Keat and John Urry in Social Science as Theory, Max Weber believed that value systems could be studied "without the social scientist's own values distorting such studies" (196).

Max Weber believed that individuals can objectively study values without their own values interfering with their judgment (Keat and Urry 196).

3. CORPORATE AUTHOR

Children of Central and Eastern Europe have not escaped the nutritional ramifications of iron deficiency, a worldwide problem (UNICEF 44).

4. NO AUTHOR

Marketers of health services and products will find the National Center for Health Statistics' site useful, particularly its statistics on mortality rates. Discovering a population's leading causes of death "tells the researcher a lot about its underlying health problems" ("Information to Die For" 40).

5. WORK IN AN ANTHOLOGY

Cite the author of the essay or story and not the editor of the anthology unless they are the same.

Although some critics disliked Mel Brook's 1993 parody of Robin Hood, it is actually "in the mainstream of the Robin Hood tradition" (Knight 461).

6. INDIRECT QUOTATION

Chief Joseph concluded his surrender by stating eloquently: "[.. .] I will fight no more forever" (qtd. in Safire 108).

7. ONLINE RESOURCE

If the work is not paginated, include the name of the author or editor within the context of your sentence (for example, from a discussion list).

Posting on the VICTORIA listserv, Karen O'Connell mentioned a relevant novel by Wilkie Collins that deals with the 19th-century use of arsenic as a complexion improver.

If the work is paginated, cite it as you would a print resource.

Imagine that the sentences above could somehow be synthesized and used in a single paper. The works cited page would look like this:

WORKS CITED

Erasmus, Desiderius. The Praise of Folly. Trans. Clarence H. Miller. New Haven:

        Yale University Press, 1979. Print.

"Information to Die For."   Marketing Health Services 22.1 (2002): 40-42.  ABI/Inform.

        Web.  14 Aug. 2009.

Keat, Russell, and John Urry.   Social Theory as Science.   2nd ed.  London: Routledge

        and K. Paul, 1982.  Print.

Knight, Stephen.  "Robin Hood: Men in Tights: Fitting the Tradition Snugly."

        Robin Hood: An Anthology of Scholarship and Criticism.   Ed. Stephen

        Knight.  Woodbridge: D. S. Brewer, 1999.  461-467.  Print.

O'Connell, Karen.  "Re: Poisoning."  VICTORIA.  Indiana U.  3 Nov. 2000.  Web.

        14 Aug. 2009.

Safire, William.   Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History. New York: W. W.

         Norton and Company, 1992. Print.

UNICEF.   Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the

         Former Soviet Union. Ed. Alexander Zouev. Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999.

         Print.

PREPARING THE LIST OF WORKS CITED

As demonstrated above, a works cited page consists of an alphabetical listing of the books, articles and other sources that you parenthetically noted in your paper. The works cited page occurs at the end of your paper; however, it is useful to create a draft of it before you begin writing. Following are typical examples of the types of references you will use in your research.

Include some or all of the following elements in your book citation:

  • Author or editor
  • Title (italicized)
  • Translator or compiler
  • Volume(s) used
  • Name of series
  • Place of publication, publisher, and date of publication
  • Page numbers
  • Name of vendor, database, or provider (italicized)
  • Medium of publication consulted (e.g., Print)
  • Date of access (Web only; day, month, year)
  • Supplementary information and annotation

1. ONE AUTHOR OR EDITOR

Cather, Willa.   The Professor's House.   New York: A. A. Knopf, 1925.  Print.

UNICEF.   Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe

         and the Former Soviet Union.   Ed. Alexander Zouev.  Armonk: M. E.

         Sharpe, 1999.  Print.

Hudson, Valerie N., ed.   Culture and Foreign Policy.   Boulder: L. Rienner

         Publishers, 1997.  Print.

2. TWO OR MORE AUTHORS OR EDITORS

    Names should be given in the order in which they appear on the title page.

Keat, Russell, and John Urry. Social Theory as Science. 2nd ed. London: Routledge

         and K. Paul, 1982. Print.

Kennedy, Mary, Kathy Lubelska, and Val Walsh, eds. Making Connections: Women's

         Studies, Women's Movements, Women's Lives. London: Taylor and Francis,

        1993. Print.

3. ELECTRONIC BOOK

    Include the vendor, database, or provider's name (italicized) and date of access (day, month, year) .

Turam, Berna. Between Islam and the State: The Politics of Engagement. Stanford,

         CA: Stanford UP, 2007. NetLibrary. Web. 14 Aug. 2009.

     If the book is accessed from a SCHOLARLY PROJECT , also include the project     name, place of publication, and the date of the electronic publication if available.

Child, Lydia Maria. An Appeal in Favor of that Class of Americans Called Africans.

        Boston: Allen and Ticknor, 1833. Women Writers Online. Brown U. Web. 14

        Aug. 2009.

4. ANTHOLOGY

Knight, Stephen.  "Robin Hood: Men in Tights: Fitting the Tradition Snugly."          

        Robin Hood: An Anthology of Scholarship and Criticism.   Ed. Stephen

Barrick, Richard, John Sullivan, and Alexander White.  "The American Bloody Register."

       Pillars of Salt: An Anthology of Early American Criminal Narratives.   Comp. 

       Daniel E. Williams.  Madison: Madison House, 1993.  233-258.  Print.

5. INTRODUCTION, PREFACE, FOREWORD, OR AFTERWORD

Ritterson, Michael.  Introduction.   The Odin Field: A Story. By Wilhem Raabe.

      Trans. Michael Ritterson.  Studies in German Literature, Linguistics, and Culture.

      Rochester: Camden House, 2001.  xi-xxvii.  Print.

6. MULTIVOLUME WORK

Tomkins, Silvan S.   Affect, Imagery, Consciousness.   4 vols.  New York: Springer,

         1962-1992. Print.

Anthony, Robert N., and James S. Reece.   Accounting Principles.   7th ed.  Chicago:

        Irwin, 1995.  Print.

8. TRANSLATION

Erasmus, Desiderius.   The Praise of Folly.   Trans.  Clarence H. Miller.  New Haven:

        Yale, 1979. Print.

9. ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE BOOK

"Audubon, John James."   The New Encyclopaedia Britannica: Micropaedia.   15th

        ed.  2002.  Print.

"Audubon, John James."   Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.   Encyclopaedia

        Britannica, 2009.  Web.  14 Aug. 2009.

Ebeling, Richard, ed.   Global Free Trade: Rhetoric or Reality?  Hillsdale, MI: Hillsdale

        College Press, 1993.  Print.  Champions of Freedom 20.

B. Articles in Periodicals

Include some or all of the following in your article citation:

  • Article title (usually in quotation marks)
  • Periodical title (italicized)
  • Series/Issue number or name
  • Volume number
  • Issue number (if available)
  • Publication date (year for scholarly journals; day, month, year for others, as available)
  • Medium of publication
  • Name of database (italicized and placed before medium of publication) (Web only)
  • Date of access (day, month, year) (Web only)

1. SCHOLARLY JOURNAL

Freedman, L.  "The Changing Forms of Military Conflict."   Survival 40.4 (1998): 39-56.

        Print.

Kirby, John T.  "Aristotle on Metaphor."   American Journal of Philology 118.4

        (1997): 517-554.  Print.

Online Journal -- Use n. pag. to indicate the absence of inclusive page numbers.

Ketabgian, Tamara.  Rev. of The Body Economic: Life, Death, and Sensation in

        Political Economy and the Victorian Novel, by Catherine Gallagher.  Bryn Mawr

        Review of Comparative Literature 6.2 (2007): n. pag.  Web.  19 Aug. 2009.

Chan, Winnie.  "Curry on the Divide in Rudyard Kipling's Kim and Gurinder Chadha's

        Bend it Like Beckham."  ARIEL: A Review of International English

        Literature 36.3-4 (2005): 1-23. Web.  14. Aug. 2009.

      Full text of an article from a Database -- Include the name of the      database, the name of the database provider and the date of access.      Use n. pag. to indicate the absence of inclusive page numbers.   

Freedman, Lawrence. "The Changing Forms of Military Conflict." Survival 40.4 (1998):

        39-56. ProQuest Research Library.  Web.  14 Aug. 2009.

  Kirby, John T.  "Aristotle on Metaphor."   American Journal of Philology 118.4 (1997):

       517-554.  JSTOR.  Web.  14 Aug. 2009.

2. MAGAZINE

     Monthly or Bimonthly

Goldberger, Paul. "Machines for Living: Architectonic Allure of the Automobile."

        Architectural Digest Oct. 1996: 82.

     Weekly

Levy, Steven, and Brad Stone.  "Silicon Valley Reboots."   Newsweek 25 Mar.

        2002: 42-50.  Print.

        2002: 42-50.  Academic Search Premier.  Web.  14 Aug. 2009.

3. ANONYMOUS ARTICLE

"Information to Die For."   Marketing Health Services 22.1 (2002): 40-42.  Print.

"Information to Die For."   Marketing Health Services 22.1 (2002): 40-42.   ABI/Inform.        14 Aug. 2009.

4. NEWSPAPER

Pianin, Eric.  "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End."   The Washington Post 13

       Feb. 2002, final ed.: A2.  Print.

Pianin, Eric.  "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End."   The Washington Post 13 Feb.

       2002, final ed.: A2.  LexisNexis Academic.   Web.  14 Aug. 2009.

Nash, Alanna.  "Hit 'em with a lizard!"  Rev. of   Basket Case, by Carl Hiaasen.  New

        York Times 3 Feb. 2002, late ed., sec. 7: 24.  Print.

        York Times 3 Feb.  2002, late ed., sec. 7: 24.  LexisNexis Academic.  Web.  14

C. Web Sites

Following are elements to include when citing entire Web sites. Keep in mind that

if you cannot find all of the elements, you should include whatever is available on the site . The URL is no longer required unless locating the site requires it or your professor requires it.

  • Title of Web site (italicized)
  • Site publisher/sponsor
  • Date of site's publication (if none, use n.d. )
  • Date of access (day, month, year)

1. SCHOLARLY PROJECT

Crane, Gregory, ed.  Perseus Digital Library.  Dept. of the Classics, Tufts U.

      n.d.  Web.  14 Aug. 2009.

2. PROFESSIONAL SITE

Financial Accounting Standards Board .  Feb. 2002.  Web.  14 Aug. 2009.

3. PERSONAL SITE

Lewis, Paul.  The Wilkie Collins Pages.   n.d.  Web. 14 Aug. 2009. 

       <http://www.paullewis.co.uk/>.

See also Electronic Book and Periodicals above.

D. Online Postings

To cite a posting from a discussion list, include the following elements if available:

  • Author of posting
  • Title of posting (from subject line of posting, in quotes)
  • Name of discussion list
  • Date of posting
  • 5. Medium of publication
  • Date of access

O'Connell, Karen.  "Re: Poisoning." VICTORIA. Indiana U.  3 Nov. 2000. Web.

A BRIEF NOTE ON FOOTNOTES AND ENDNOTES

Long explanatory footnotes or endnotes can distract the reader. Nevertheless, you may occasionally need to clarify a citation with a bibliographic note . Or you may wish to incorporate information that might interest your reader but which would seem tangential if included within the text of your paper. In this case, you would use a content note. Notes are indicated with consecutive superscript numbers within the text of your paper. The actual note is indented and can occur either as a footnote at the bottom of the page or as an endnote at the end of the paper.

1. BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTE

Nineteenth-century critics of cheap, mass-produced fiction feared that the gory subject matter of stories like Sweeney Todd would lead a generation of youth into depravity. 1

          1 For a selection of penny fiction as well as 19th-century criticism of it, see

Haining's The Penny Dreadful .

2. CONTENT NOTE

Charles Knight did not rely solely on the cheaply printed word in publications like the Penny Magazine to educate people; he also mass-produced images to diffuse knowledge visually. 2

2 Patricia Anderson's The Printed Image and the Transformation of Popular Culture, 1790-1860 provides examples of Penny Magazine images, such as depictions of flamingos, reproduced portraits of people like Benjamin Franklin, and engravings of famous artworks like "The Dying Gladiator" and "Laocoon" (50-83).

FOR MORE HELP

Following are links to sites that have additional information and further examples:

  • RefWorks : Once you have created an account, go to Tools/Preview Output Style to see examples of MLA style.
  • Purdue's Online Writing Lab (OWL) : Excellent source for research, writing and citation tips.
  • Citing Sources : Duke University's guide to citing sources. The site offers comparison citation tables with examples from APA , Chicago , MLA and Turabian for both print and electronic works.
  • Citing Electronic Primary Sources : From the Library of Congress. Provides MLA and Turabian examples of citing formats such as films, photographs, maps and recorded sound that are accessed electronically.

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Smoke rising over an area of the Ukraine-Russia border

Ukraine: significant escalation in fighting reported in Donetsk region

Russia claims to have fought off ‘major offensive’ and killed hundreds of Ukrainian troops in attack

  • Russia-Ukraine war live: latest updates

A significant escalation in fighting along the frontlines in the Donetsk region of Ukraine has been reported overnight, but there was no confirmation from Kyiv officials that it marked the start of their long-planned counteroffensive.

Russia claimed to have repelled a “major offensive” in the Donetsk region and to have killed hundreds of Ukrainian troops, but the claims could not be independently verified. A Moscow-backed militia leader, the head of the Wagner mercenary group and Russian military bloggers said Ukrainian forces had achieved breakthroughs at some points.

The only comment from a senior Ukrainian official on Monday was a cryptic one from the head of the presidential office, Andriy Yermak, who tweeted : “True wisdom is to be able to convince the enemies they have already lost.

“Victory or defeat, it is born in heads first,” he added, suggesting that winning or losing started as a state of mind.

Asked about the reports of major offensive operations, a spokesperson for the Ukrainian armed forces’ general staff told Reuters news agency: “We do not have such information and we do not comment on any kind of fake.”

Over the weekend, Ukrainian leaders emphasised the need for secrecy about operations in recent days as anticipation grew for a major counteroffensive. Ukrainian military officers have predicted that any such counteroffensive would be preceded and accompanied by feints and diversionary attacks to “shape the battlefield” and cause as much confusion as possible in Russian ranks.

The defence ministry in Moscow said Ukraine had attacked with six mechanised and two tank battalions from two brigades in five sectors of the front in Donetsk.

Aerial view of Ukrainian forces destroying Russian positions near Klischiivka, Donetsk oblast.

“The enemy’s goal was to break through our defences in the most vulnerable, in its opinion, sector of the front,” it said. “The enemy did not achieve its tasks, it had no success.”

The ministry claimed 250 Ukrainian troops had been killed, and 16 tanks, three infantry fighting vehicles and 21 armoured personnel carriers destroyed. It also claimed that Valery Gerasimov, the Russian chief of general staff, had been near the frontlines when the attack was repelled. The Russian defence ministry has consistently made exaggerated claims about the casualties its forces have inflicted.

The ministry statement named the Ukrainian units involved as the 23rd and 31st mechanised brigades in the attack, neither of which are listed as among the 12 western equipped units in the leaked Pentagon Papers. A two-brigade deployment would represent a significant attack, but is not itself a full-sized breakthrough force.

Videos posted online showed what were purported to be Ukrainian armoured cars blowing up in fields near Velyka Novosilka, 60 miles west of Donetsk city, but it was impossible to tell from the videos when they were taken and what the outcome of the battle was.

The daily update from the Ukrainian general staff on Sunday made no mention of a major offensive in Donetsk but did report 29 clashes in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts and 15 airstrikes on enemy troops across the country.

The Institute for the Study of War in Washington, which monitors signs of troop movements, said: “Ukrainian forces conducted local ground attacks and reportedly made limited tactical gains in western Donetsk oblast and eastern Zaporizhzhia oblast.”

Alexander Khodakovsky, the head of the pro-Moscow Vostok Battalion in the Donbas, said there had been Ukrainian military gains south of the town of Velyka Novosilka in western Donetsk.

“The enemy is trying to break through. Having grouped their forces into a fist, they were able to achieve tactical success,” Khodakovsky said on Telegram. “They took one position from us, but suffered tangible losses.”

Later on Monday, Khodakovsky reported that German-made Leopard tanks had been spotted among the attacking forces, as Ukraine’s army pressed its advantage

“The enemy, having felt our weak points, is stepping up his efforts. For the first time we saw Leopards in our tactical area,” he said. “As I predicted yesterday, smelling the scent of success, the enemy will throw additional forces into the battle.”

Russian military bloggers also said Ukraine had breached Russian lines in Velykonovosilkivskyi. The military journalist and propagandist Semyon Pegov wrote on his Wargonzo blog: “This time the news is much more disturbing.”

“This is not about panic but about the need for well-coordinated work,” Pegov wrote. “Good luck to the guys at the front, today will obviously not be an easy day.”

Farther north-west along the Donetsk front, the head of the Wagner group mercenary organisation, Yevgeny Prigozhin, complained that Berkhivka, a settlement north of Bakhmut, had fallen to Ukrainian forces.

“Now part of the settlement of Berkhivka has already been lost, the troops are quietly running away. Disgrace,” Prigozhin said in an audio message published by his own press outlet. He challenged Gerasimov and Russia’s defence minister, Sergei Shoigu, to come to the frontlines themselves.

“Come on, you can do it,” Prigozhin taunted. “And if you can’t, you’ll die as heroes.”

Igor Girkin, a Russian nationalist critic of the Kremlin and former “defence minister” in the Russian-installed authority in Donetsk, said it was clear Ukraine “has not yet made full use of his main forces”.

He added: “If the enemy’s offensive has really begun, and is not a ‘test of strength’, the intensity of the battles will only increase in the coming days. The outcome of the battle is not yet completely predetermined – it is just beginning.”

On Monday, the commander of Ukraine’s ground forces, Oleksandr Syrskyi, said his troops continued “moving forward” near Bakhmut but he made no comment on the counteroffensive.

Ukraine-backed Russian rebels kept up their offensive inside the Russian region of Belgorod. The incursion launched on Thursday by the Freedom of Russia Legion and the Russian Volunteer Corps was aimed at the town of Shebekino, and on Monday the rebels claimed to have destroyed Russian armoured vehicles on the outskirts of town.

Smoke rising above the town of Shebekino, in Belgorod region, on Sunday.

Ukraine’s defence minister, Oleksii Reznikov, posted a message on Twitter on Sunday, quoting from the Depeche Mode song Enjoy the Silence. “Words are very unnecessary They can only do harm,” the tweet said.

Also on Sunday, Ukraine’s armed forces published a video on social media of soldiers facing the camera and putting their finger to their lips, underlining the need for secrecy. In an interview published the same day in the Wall Street Journal, Ukraine’s president, Volodymyr Zelenskiy , said preparations for the counteroffensive had been completed.

Ukraine made striking gains in liberating occupied territory late last year, but Russian forces have had several months since to prepare defensive positions. There is widespread apprehension among Ukrainian forces over the human cost of a counteroffensive, but also awareness that the cost could grow the longer Kyiv waits.

Zelenskiy said Ukraine did not have all the western weapons it had wanted to start the counteroffensive but could no longer wait. He warned that “a large number of soldiers will die”.

Ukraine has readied 12 brigades, an estimated 60,000 troops, to spearhead an attack it hopes will show it can force the Russian invaders, who total about 300,000, from its territory, some of which has been occupied since 2014.

  • Volodymyr Zelenskiy

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