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How to Write the Analysis Section of My Research Paper

How to Write a Technical Essay

How to Write a Technical Essay

Data collection is only the beginning of the research paper writing process. Writing up the analysis is the bulk of the project. As Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab notes, analysis is a useful tool for investigating content you find in various print and other sources, like journals and video media.

Locate and collect documents. Make multiple photocopies of all relevant print materials. Label and store these in a way that provides easy access. Conduct your analysis.

Create a heading for the analysis section of your paper. Specify the criteria you looked for in the data. For instance, a research paper analyzing the possibility of life on other planets may look for the weight of evidence supporting a particular theory, or the scientific validity of particular publications.

Write about the patterns you found, and note the number of instances a particular idea emerged during analysis. For example, an analysis of Native American cultures may look for similarities between spiritual beliefs, gender roles or agricultural techniques. Researchers frequently repeat the process to find patterns that were missed during the first analysis. You can also write about your comparative analysis, if you did one. It is common to ask a colleague to perform the process and compare their findings with yours.

Summarize your analysis in a paragraph or two. Write the transition for the conclusions section of your paper.

  • Use compare and contrast language. Indicate where there are similarities and differences in the data through the use of phrases like ''in contrast'' and ''similarly.''

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Adam Simpson is an author and blogger who started writing professionally in 2006 and has written for OneStopEnglish and other Web sites. He has chapters in the volumes "Teaching and learning vocabulary in another language" and "Educational technology in the Arabian gulf," among others. Simpson attended the University of Central Lancashire where he earned a B.A. in international management.

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Research Paper Writing: 6. Results / Analysis

  • 1. Getting Started
  • 2. Abstract
  • 3. Introduction
  • 4. Literature Review
  • 5. Methods / Materials
  • 6. Results / Analysis
  • 7. Discussion
  • 8. Conclusion
  • 9. Reference

Writing about the information

There are two sections of a research paper depending on what style is being written. The sections are usually straightforward commentary of exactly what the writer observed and found during the actual research. It is important to include only the important findings, and avoid too much information that can bury the exact meaning of the context.

The results section should aim to narrate the findings without trying to interpret or evaluate, and also provide a direction to the discussion section of the research paper. The results are reported and reveals the analysis. The analysis section is where the writer describes what was done with the data found.  In order to write the analysis section it is important to know what the analysis consisted of, but does not mean data is needed. The analysis should already be performed to write the results section.

Written explanations

How should the analysis section be written?

  • Should be a paragraph within the research paper
  • Consider all the requirements (spacing, margins, and font)
  • Should be the writer’s own explanation of the chosen problem
  • Thorough evaluation of work
  • Description of the weak and strong points
  • Discussion of the effect and impact
  • Includes criticism

How should the results section be written?

  • Show the most relevant information in graphs, figures, and tables
  • Include data that may be in the form of pictures, artifacts, notes, and interviews
  • Clarify unclear points
  • Present results with a short discussion explaining them at the end
  • Include the negative results
  • Provide stability, accuracy, and value

How the style is presented

Analysis section

  • Includes a justification of the methods used
  • Technical explanation

Results section

  • Purely descriptive
  • Easily explained for the targeted audience
  • Data driven

Example of a Results Section

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association Sixth Ed. 2010

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  • How to Write Discussions and Conclusions

How to Write Discussions and Conclusions

The discussion section contains the results and outcomes of a study. An effective discussion informs readers what can be learned from your experiment and provides context for the results.

What makes an effective discussion?

When you’re ready to write your discussion, you’ve already introduced the purpose of your study and provided an in-depth description of the methodology. The discussion informs readers about the larger implications of your study based on the results. Highlighting these implications while not overstating the findings can be challenging, especially when you’re submitting to a journal that selects articles based on novelty or potential impact. Regardless of what journal you are submitting to, the discussion section always serves the same purpose: concluding what your study results actually mean.

A successful discussion section puts your findings in context. It should include:

  • the results of your research,
  • a discussion of related research, and
  • a comparison between your results and initial hypothesis.

Tip: Not all journals share the same naming conventions.

You can apply the advice in this article to the conclusion, results or discussion sections of your manuscript.

Our Early Career Researcher community tells us that the conclusion is often considered the most difficult aspect of a manuscript to write. To help, this guide provides questions to ask yourself, a basic structure to model your discussion off of and examples from published manuscripts. 

how to write the analysis section of a research paper

Questions to ask yourself:

  • Was my hypothesis correct?
  • If my hypothesis is partially correct or entirely different, what can be learned from the results? 
  • How do the conclusions reshape or add onto the existing knowledge in the field? What does previous research say about the topic? 
  • Why are the results important or relevant to your audience? Do they add further evidence to a scientific consensus or disprove prior studies? 
  • How can future research build on these observations? What are the key experiments that must be done? 
  • What is the “take-home” message you want your reader to leave with?

How to structure a discussion

Trying to fit a complete discussion into a single paragraph can add unnecessary stress to the writing process. If possible, you’ll want to give yourself two or three paragraphs to give the reader a comprehensive understanding of your study as a whole. Here’s one way to structure an effective discussion:

how to write the analysis section of a research paper

Writing Tips

While the above sections can help you brainstorm and structure your discussion, there are many common mistakes that writers revert to when having difficulties with their paper. Writing a discussion can be a delicate balance between summarizing your results, providing proper context for your research and avoiding introducing new information. Remember that your paper should be both confident and honest about the results! 

What to do

  • Read the journal’s guidelines on the discussion and conclusion sections. If possible, learn about the guidelines before writing the discussion to ensure you’re writing to meet their expectations. 
  • Begin with a clear statement of the principal findings. This will reinforce the main take-away for the reader and set up the rest of the discussion. 
  • Explain why the outcomes of your study are important to the reader. Discuss the implications of your findings realistically based on previous literature, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of the research. 
  • State whether the results prove or disprove your hypothesis. If your hypothesis was disproved, what might be the reasons? 
  • Introduce new or expanded ways to think about the research question. Indicate what next steps can be taken to further pursue any unresolved questions. 
  • If dealing with a contemporary or ongoing problem, such as climate change, discuss possible consequences if the problem is avoided. 
  • Be concise. Adding unnecessary detail can distract from the main findings. 

What not to do

Don’t

  • Rewrite your abstract. Statements with “we investigated” or “we studied” generally do not belong in the discussion. 
  • Include new arguments or evidence not previously discussed. Necessary information and evidence should be introduced in the main body of the paper. 
  • Apologize. Even if your research contains significant limitations, don’t undermine your authority by including statements that doubt your methodology or execution. 
  • Shy away from speaking on limitations or negative results. Including limitations and negative results will give readers a complete understanding of the presented research. Potential limitations include sources of potential bias, threats to internal or external validity, barriers to implementing an intervention and other issues inherent to the study design. 
  • Overstate the importance of your findings. Making grand statements about how a study will fully resolve large questions can lead readers to doubt the success of the research. 

Snippets of Effective Discussions:

Consumer-based actions to reduce plastic pollution in rivers: A multi-criteria decision analysis approach

Identifying reliable indicators of fitness in polar bears

  • How to Write a Great Title
  • How to Write an Abstract
  • How to Write Your Methods
  • How to Report Statistics
  • How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

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Primary research involves collecting data about a given subject directly from the real world. This section includes information on what primary research is, how to get started, ethics involved with primary research and different types of research you can do. It includes details about interviews, surveys, observations, and analysis.

Analysis is a type of primary research that involves finding and interpreting patterns in data, classifying those patterns, and generalizing the results. It is useful when looking at actions, events, or occurrences in different texts, media, or publications. Analysis can usually be done without considering most of the ethical issues discussed in the overview, as you are not working with people but rather publicly accessible documents. Analysis can be done on new documents or performed on raw data that you yourself have collected.

Here are several examples of analysis:

  • Recording commercials on three major television networks and analyzing race and gender within the commercials to discover some conclusion.
  • Analyzing the historical trends in public laws by looking at the records at a local courthouse.
  • Analyzing topics of discussion in chat rooms for patterns based on gender and age.

Analysis research involves several steps:

  • Finding and collecting documents.
  • Specifying criteria or patterns that you are looking for.
  • Analyzing documents for patterns, noting number of occurrences or other factors.
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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

  • Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
  • Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
  • Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
  • Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
  • Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
  • Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
  • Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
  • Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
  • Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

  • Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
  • Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
  • Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

  • How often do you use social media per day?
  • Less than 30 minutes
  • 30 minutes to 1 hour
  • 1 to 2 hours
  • 2 to 4 hours
  • More than 4 hours
  • Which social media platforms do you use?
  • Others (Please specify)
  • How often do you experience the following on social media?
  • Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
  • Cyberbullying
  • Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
  • Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
  • Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
  • Very positive
  • Somewhat positive
  • Somewhat negative
  • Very negative
  • In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
  • Social comparison
  • In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
  • Education on healthy social media use
  • Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
  • Social media detox programs
  • Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

  • Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
  • Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
  • Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
  • Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
  • Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

  • For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
  • For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
  • To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
  • To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

  • To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
  • To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
  • To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
  • To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

  • Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
  • Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
  • Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
  • Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
  • Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
  • Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

  • Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
  • Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
  • Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
  • Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
  • Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
  • Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

  • Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
  • Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
  • Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
  • Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
  • Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
  • Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

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how to write the analysis section of a research paper

How To Write An Analysis Section Of An Academic Paper

The analysis section of an academic essay is extremely important. In this section, you main thoughts and ideas will come out in regards to the research that you have conducted for your work. In this article, we will discuss how to properly write an analysis section that ensures that your work receives much praise amongst your fellow academics.

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Academic Essays

Before we get onto the analysis section, we must take a quick look at academic papers. Academic papers are unlike any other types of essays you may have come across during college. For science students, they come across as a particular shock since they do not have much essay writing experience during college. Nevertheless, it is not impossible to become acquainted with the structure of an academic essay, and to write one to a high standard even if you have little essay writing experience.

To truly understand the analysis section of an academic paper, we must see the role it plays in your writing. As you probably already know, the structure of an academic piece of writing is as follows:

  • Introduction: the introduction of your paper should tell the reader what they will be reading about during the course of your writing. You will also make your thesis statement in the introduction.
  • Literature Review: In the literature review, you go through the previous research that has been conducted on the topic you are writing about.
  • Methodology: The methodology discusses and analyzes the methods you will undertake for your paper.
  • Results: The results section tells the reader the results of your research.
  • Analysis: This is the section that we are concerned with. Here, you will analyze the results of the previous part of your paper.
  • Conclusion: The conclusion should provide the reader with a summary of your results and analysis, telling the reader the overall result as well as whether or not your thesis statement has been met as a result of your research.

Once you know the structure of an academic essay, we can move on to discussing the analysis part of the paper.

As can be seen above, the analysis section of an academic essay is concerned with analyzing the results you have achieved through your research. The analysis should aim to answer questions such as:

  • What do these results show?
  • What are the possible consequences of these results?
  • Has my thesis statement been satisfied by my research? If not, why not?
  • How could these results be different if the methodology was adjusted?

The main purpose of the analysis is to see whether or not the thesis statement you made in your introduction has been satisfied. The pivotal part of your essay is the thesis statement, and so it is worth analyzing this in depth to ensure a high mark for your work.

As you can see, many students have a lot of misconceptions about the analysis part of an academic paper. However, by utilizing our guide, you can compose a high quality analysis section that will bring you a lot of success.

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How to Write the Results/Findings Section in Research

how to write the analysis section of a research paper

What is the research paper Results section and what does it do?

The Results section of a scientific research paper represents the core findings of a study derived from the methods applied to gather and analyze information. It presents these findings in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation from the author, setting up the reader for later interpretation and evaluation in the Discussion section. A major purpose of the Results section is to break down the data into sentences that show its significance to the research question(s).

The Results section appears third in the section sequence in most scientific papers. It follows the presentation of the Methods and Materials and is presented before the Discussion section —although the Results and Discussion are presented together in many journals. This section answers the basic question “What did you find in your research?”

What is included in the Results section?

The Results section should include the findings of your study and ONLY the findings of your study. The findings include:

  • Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures (may be placed into the text or on separate pages at the end of the manuscript)
  • A contextual analysis of this data explaining its meaning in sentence form
  • All data that corresponds to the central research question(s)
  • All secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)

If the scope of the study is broad, or if you studied a variety of variables, or if the methodology used yields a wide range of different results, the author should present only those results that are most relevant to the research question stated in the Introduction section .

As a general rule, any information that does not present the direct findings or outcome of the study should be left out of this section. Unless the journal requests that authors combine the Results and Discussion sections, explanations and interpretations should be omitted from the Results.

How are the results organized?

The best way to organize your Results section is “logically.” One logical and clear method of organizing research results is to provide them alongside the research questions—within each research question, present the type of data that addresses that research question.

Let’s look at an example. Your research question is based on a survey among patients who were treated at a hospital and received postoperative care. Let’s say your first research question is:

results section of a research paper, figures

“What do hospital patients over age 55 think about postoperative care?”

This can actually be represented as a heading within your Results section, though it might be presented as a statement rather than a question:

Attitudes towards postoperative care in patients over the age of 55

Now present the results that address this specific research question first. In this case, perhaps a table illustrating data from a survey. Likert items can be included in this example. Tables can also present standard deviations, probabilities, correlation matrices, etc.

Following this, present a content analysis, in words, of one end of the spectrum of the survey or data table. In our example case, start with the POSITIVE survey responses regarding postoperative care, using descriptive phrases. For example:

“Sixty-five percent of patients over 55 responded positively to the question “ Are you satisfied with your hospital’s postoperative care ?” (Fig. 2)

Include other results such as subcategory analyses. The amount of textual description used will depend on how much interpretation of tables and figures is necessary and how many examples the reader needs in order to understand the significance of your research findings.

Next, present a content analysis of another part of the spectrum of the same research question, perhaps the NEGATIVE or NEUTRAL responses to the survey. For instance:

  “As Figure 1 shows, 15 out of 60 patients in Group A responded negatively to Question 2.”

After you have assessed the data in one figure and explained it sufficiently, move on to your next research question. For example:

  “How does patient satisfaction correspond to in-hospital improvements made to postoperative care?”

results section of a research paper, figures

This kind of data may be presented through a figure or set of figures (for instance, a paired T-test table).

Explain the data you present, here in a table, with a concise content analysis:

“The p-value for the comparison between the before and after groups of patients was .03% (Fig. 2), indicating that the greater the dissatisfaction among patients, the more frequent the improvements that were made to postoperative care.”

Let’s examine another example of a Results section from a study on plant tolerance to heavy metal stress . In the Introduction section, the aims of the study are presented as “determining the physiological and morphological responses of Allium cepa L. towards increased cadmium toxicity” and “evaluating its potential to accumulate the metal and its associated environmental consequences.” The Results section presents data showing how these aims are achieved in tables alongside a content analysis, beginning with an overview of the findings:

“Cadmium caused inhibition of root and leave elongation, with increasing effects at higher exposure doses (Fig. 1a-c).”

The figure containing this data is cited in parentheses. Note that this author has combined three graphs into one single figure. Separating the data into separate graphs focusing on specific aspects makes it easier for the reader to assess the findings, and consolidating this information into one figure saves space and makes it easy to locate the most relevant results.

results section of a research paper, figures

Following this overall summary, the relevant data in the tables is broken down into greater detail in text form in the Results section.

  • “Results on the bio-accumulation of cadmium were found to be the highest (17.5 mg kgG1) in the bulb, when the concentration of cadmium in the solution was 1×10G2 M and lowest (0.11 mg kgG1) in the leaves when the concentration was 1×10G3 M.”

Captioning and Referencing Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are central components of your Results section and you need to carefully think about the most effective way to use graphs and tables to present your findings . Therefore, it is crucial to know how to write strong figure captions and to refer to them within the text of the Results section.

The most important advice one can give here as well as throughout the paper is to check the requirements and standards of the journal to which you are submitting your work. Every journal has its own design and layout standards, which you can find in the author instructions on the target journal’s website. Perusing a journal’s published articles will also give you an idea of the proper number, size, and complexity of your figures.

Regardless of which format you use, the figures should be placed in the order they are referenced in the Results section and be as clear and easy to understand as possible. If there are multiple variables being considered (within one or more research questions), it can be a good idea to split these up into separate figures. Subsequently, these can be referenced and analyzed under separate headings and paragraphs in the text.

To create a caption, consider the research question being asked and change it into a phrase. For instance, if one question is “Which color did participants choose?”, the caption might be “Color choice by participant group.” Or in our last research paper example, where the question was “What is the concentration of cadmium in different parts of the onion after 14 days?” the caption reads:

 “Fig. 1(a-c): Mean concentration of Cd determined in (a) bulbs, (b) leaves, and (c) roots of onions after a 14-day period.”

Steps for Composing the Results Section

Because each study is unique, there is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to designing a strategy for structuring and writing the section of a research paper where findings are presented. The content and layout of this section will be determined by the specific area of research, the design of the study and its particular methodologies, and the guidelines of the target journal and its editors. However, the following steps can be used to compose the results of most scientific research studies and are essential for researchers who are new to preparing a manuscript for publication or who need a reminder of how to construct the Results section.

Step 1 : Consult the guidelines or instructions that the target journal or publisher provides authors and read research papers it has published, especially those with similar topics, methods, or results to your study.

  • The guidelines will generally outline specific requirements for the results or findings section, and the published articles will provide sound examples of successful approaches.
  • Note length limitations on restrictions on content. For instance, while many journals require the Results and Discussion sections to be separate, others do not—qualitative research papers often include results and interpretations in the same section (“Results and Discussion”).
  • Reading the aims and scope in the journal’s “ guide for authors ” section and understanding the interests of its readers will be invaluable in preparing to write the Results section.

Step 2 : Consider your research results in relation to the journal’s requirements and catalogue your results.

  • Focus on experimental results and other findings that are especially relevant to your research questions and objectives and include them even if they are unexpected or do not support your ideas and hypotheses.
  • Catalogue your findings—use subheadings to streamline and clarify your report. This will help you avoid excessive and peripheral details as you write and also help your reader understand and remember your findings. Create appendices that might interest specialists but prove too long or distracting for other readers.
  • Decide how you will structure of your results. You might match the order of the research questions and hypotheses to your results, or you could arrange them according to the order presented in the Methods section. A chronological order or even a hierarchy of importance or meaningful grouping of main themes or categories might prove effective. Consider your audience, evidence, and most importantly, the objectives of your research when choosing a structure for presenting your findings.

Step 3 : Design figures and tables to present and illustrate your data.

  • Tables and figures should be numbered according to the order in which they are mentioned in the main text of the paper.
  • Information in figures should be relatively self-explanatory (with the aid of captions), and their design should include all definitions and other information necessary for readers to understand the findings without reading all of the text.
  • Use tables and figures as a focal point to tell a clear and informative story about your research and avoid repeating information. But remember that while figures clarify and enhance the text, they cannot replace it.

Step 4 : Draft your Results section using the findings and figures you have organized.

  • The goal is to communicate this complex information as clearly and precisely as possible; precise and compact phrases and sentences are most effective.
  • In the opening paragraph of this section, restate your research questions or aims to focus the reader’s attention to what the results are trying to show. It is also a good idea to summarize key findings at the end of this section to create a logical transition to the interpretation and discussion that follows.
  • Try to write in the past tense and the active voice to relay the findings since the research has already been done and the agent is usually clear. This will ensure that your explanations are also clear and logical.
  • Make sure that any specialized terminology or abbreviation you have used here has been defined and clarified in the  Introduction section .

Step 5 : Review your draft; edit and revise until it reports results exactly as you would like to have them reported to your readers.

  • Double-check the accuracy and consistency of all the data, as well as all of the visual elements included.
  • Read your draft aloud to catch language errors (grammar, spelling, and mechanics), awkward phrases, and missing transitions.
  • Ensure that your results are presented in the best order to focus on objectives and prepare readers for interpretations, valuations, and recommendations in the Discussion section . Look back over the paper’s Introduction and background while anticipating the Discussion and Conclusion sections to ensure that the presentation of your results is consistent and effective.
  • Consider seeking additional guidance on your paper. Find additional readers to look over your Results section and see if it can be improved in any way. Peers, professors, or qualified experts can provide valuable insights.

One excellent option is to use a professional English proofreading and editing service  such as Wordvice, including our paper editing service . With hundreds of qualified editors from dozens of scientific fields, Wordvice has helped thousands of authors revise their manuscripts and get accepted into their target journals. Read more about the  proofreading and editing process  before proceeding with getting academic editing services and manuscript editing services for your manuscript.

As the representation of your study’s data output, the Results section presents the core information in your research paper. By writing with clarity and conciseness and by highlighting and explaining the crucial findings of their study, authors increase the impact and effectiveness of their research manuscripts.

For more articles and videos on writing your research manuscript, visit Wordvice’s Resources page.

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How to write statistical analysis section in medical research

Alok kumar dwivedi.

Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center El Paso, El Paso, Texas, USA

Associated Data

jim-2022-002479supp001.pdf

Data sharing not applicable as no datasets generated and/or analyzed for this study.

Reporting of statistical analysis is essential in any clinical and translational research study. However, medical research studies sometimes report statistical analysis that is either inappropriate or insufficient to attest to the accuracy and validity of findings and conclusions. Published works involving inaccurate statistical analyses and insufficient reporting influence the conduct of future scientific studies, including meta-analyses and medical decisions. Although the biostatistical practice has been improved over the years due to the involvement of statistical reviewers and collaborators in research studies, there remain areas of improvement for transparent reporting of the statistical analysis section in a study. Evidence-based biostatistics practice throughout the research is useful for generating reliable data and translating meaningful data to meaningful interpretation and decisions in medical research. Most existing research reporting guidelines do not provide guidance for reporting methods in the statistical analysis section that helps in evaluating the quality of findings and data interpretation. In this report, we highlight the global and critical steps to be reported in the statistical analysis of grants and research articles. We provide clarity and the importance of understanding study objective types, data generation process, effect size use, evidence-based biostatistical methods use, and development of statistical models through several thematic frameworks. We also provide published examples of adherence or non-adherence to methodological standards related to each step in the statistical analysis and their implications. We believe the suggestions provided in this report can have far-reaching implications for education and strengthening the quality of statistical reporting and biostatistical practice in medical research.

Introduction

Biostatistics is the overall approach to how we realistically and feasibly execute a research idea to produce meaningful data and translate data to meaningful interpretation and decisions. In this era of evidence-based medicine and practice, basic biostatistical knowledge becomes essential for critically appraising research articles and implementing findings for better patient management, improving healthcare, and research planning. 1 However, it may not be sufficient for the proper execution and reporting of statistical analyses in studies. 2 3 Three things are required for statistical analyses, namely knowledge of the conceptual framework of variables, research design, and evidence-based applications of statistical analysis with statistical software. 4 5 The conceptual framework provides possible biological and clinical pathways between independent variables and outcomes with role specification of variables. The research design provides a protocol of study design and data generation process (DGP), whereas the evidence-based statistical analysis approach provides guidance for selecting and implementing approaches after evaluating data with the research design. 2 5 Ocaña-Riola 6 reported a substantial percentage of articles from high-impact medical journals contained errors in statistical analysis or data interpretation. These errors in statistical analyses and interpretation of results do not only impact the reliability of research findings but also influence the medical decision-making and planning and execution of other related studies. A survey of consulting biostatisticians in the USA reported that researchers frequently request biostatisticians for performing inappropriate statistical analyses and inappropriate reporting of data. 7 This implies that there is a need to enforce standardized reporting of the statistical analysis section in medical research which can also help rreviewers and investigators to improve the methodological standards of the study.

Biostatistical practice in medicine has been improving over the years due to continuous efforts in promoting awareness and involving expert services on biostatistics, epidemiology, and research design in clinical and translational research. 8–11 Despite these efforts, the quality of reporting of statistical analysis in research studies has often been suboptimal. 12 13 We noticed that none of the methods reporting documents were developed using evidence-based biostatistics (EBB) theory and practice. The EBB practice implies that the selection of statistical analysis methods for statistical analyses and the steps of results reporting and interpretation should be grounded based on the evidence generated in the scientific literature and according to the study objective type and design. 5 Previous works have not properly elucidated the importance of understanding EBB concepts and related reporting in the write-up of statistical analyses. As a result, reviewers sometimes ask to present data or execute analyses that do not match the study objective type. 14 We summarize the statistical analysis steps to be reported in the statistical analysis section based on review and thematic frameworks.

We identified articles describing statistical reporting problems in medicine using different search terms ( online supplemental table 1 ). Based on these studies, we prioritized commonly reported statistical errors in analytical strategies and developed essential components to be reported in the statistical analysis section of research grants and studies. We also clarified the purpose and the overall implication of reporting each step in statistical analyses through various examples.

Supplementary data

Although biostatistical inputs are critical for the entire research study ( online supplemental table 2 ), biostatistical consultations were mostly used for statistical analyses only 15 . Even though the conduct of statistical analysis mismatched with the study objective and DGP was identified as the major problem in articles submitted to high-impact medical journals. 16 In addition, multivariable analyses were often inappropriately conducted and reported in published studies. 17 18 In light of these statistical errors, we describe the reporting of the following components in the statistical analysis section of the study.

Step 1: specify study objective type and outcomes (overall approach)

The study objective type provides the role of important variables for a specified outcome in statistical analyses and the overall approach of the model building and model reporting steps in a study. In the statistical framework, the problems are classified into descriptive and inferential/analytical/confirmatory objectives. In the epidemiological framework, the analytical and prognostic problems are broadly classified into association, explanatory, and predictive objectives. 19 These study objectives ( figure 1 ) may be classified into six categories: (1) exploratory, (2) association, (3) causal, (4) intervention, (5) prediction and (6) clinical decision models in medical research. 20

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Comparative assessments of developing and reporting of study objective types and models. Association measures include odds ratio, risk ratio, or hazard ratio. AUC, area under the curve; C, confounder; CI, confidence interval; E, exposure; HbA1C: hemoglobin A1c; M, mediator; MFT, model fit test; MST, model specification test; PI, predictive interval; R 2 , coefficient of determinant; X, independent variable; Y, outcome.

The exploratory objective type is a specific type of determinant study and is commonly known as risk factors or correlates study in medical research. In an exploratory study, all covariates are considered equally important for the outcome of interest in the study. The goal of the exploratory study is to present the results of a model which gives higher accuracy after satisfying all model-related assumptions. In the association study, the investigator identifies predefined exposures of interest for the outcome, and variables other than exposures are also important for the interpretation and considered as covariates. The goal of an association study is to present the adjusted association of exposure with outcome. 20 In the causal objective study, the investigator is interested in determining the impact of exposure(s) on outcome using the conceptual framework. In this study objective, all variables should have a predefined role (exposures, confounders, mediators, covariates, and predictors) in a conceptual framework. A study with a causal objective is known as an explanatory or a confirmatory study in medical research. The goal is to present the direct or indirect effects of exposure(s) on an outcome after assessing the model’s fitness in the conceptual framework. 19 21 The objective of an interventional study is to determine the effect of an intervention on outcomes and is often known as randomized or non-randomized clinical trials in medical research. In the intervention objective model, all variables other than the intervention are treated as nuisance variables for primary analyses. The goal is to present the direct effect of the intervention on the outcomes by eliminating biases. 22–24 In the predictive study, the goal is to determine an optimum set of variables that can predict the outcome, particularly in external settings. The clinical decision models are a special case of prognostic models in which high dimensional data at various levels are used for risk stratification, classification, and prediction. In this model, all variables are considered input features. The goal is to present a decision tool that has high accuracy in training, testing, and validation data sets. 20 25 Biostatisticians or applied researchers should properly discuss the intention of the study objective type before proceeding with statistical analyses. In addition, it would be a good idea to prepare a conceptual model framework regardless of study objective type to understand study concepts.

A study 26 showed a favorable effect of the beta-blocker intervention on survival outcome in patients with advanced human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER2)-negative breast cancer without adjusting for all the potential confounding effects (age or menopausal status and Eastern Cooperative Oncology Performance Status) in primary analyses or validation analyses or using a propensity score-adjusted analysis, which is an EBB preferred method for analyzing non-randomized studies. 27 Similarly, another study had the goal of developing a predictive model for prediction of Alzheimer’s disease progression. 28 However, this study did not internally or externally validate the performance of the model as per the requirement of a predictive objective study. In another study, 29 investigators were interested in determining an association between metabolic syndrome and hepatitis C virus. However, the authors did not clearly specify the outcome in the analysis and produced conflicting associations with different analyses. 30 Thus, the outcome should be clearly specified as per the study objective type.

Step 2: specify effect size measure according to study design (interpretation and practical value)

The study design provides information on the selection of study participants and the process of data collection conditioned on either exposure or outcome ( figure 2 ). The appropriate use of effect size measure, tabular presentation of results, and the level of evidence are mostly determined by the study design. 31 32 In cohort or clinical trial study designs, the participants are selected based on exposure status and are followed up for the development of the outcome. These study designs can provide multiple outcomes, produce incidence or incidence density, and are preferred to be analyzed with risk ratio (RR) or hazards models. In a case–control study, the selection of participants is conditioned on outcome status. This type of study can have only one outcome and is preferred to be analyzed with an odds ratio (OR) model. In a cross-sectional study design, there is no selection restriction on outcomes or exposures. All data are collected simultaneously and can be analyzed with a prevalence ratio model, which is mathematically equivalent to the RR model. 33 The reporting of effect size measure also depends on the study objective type. For example, predictive models typically require reporting of regression coefficients or weight of variables in the model instead of association measures, which are required in other objective types. There are agreements and disagreements between OR and RR measures. Due to the constancy and symmetricity properties of OR, some researchers prefer to use OR in studies with common events. Similarly, the collapsibility and interpretability properties of RR make it more appealing to use in studies with common events. 34 To avoid variable practice and interpretation issues with OR, it is recommended to use RR models in all studies except for case–control and nested case–control studies, where OR approximates RR and thus OR models should be used. Otherwise, investigators may report sufficient data to compute any ratio measure. Biostatisticians should educate investigators on the proper interpretation of ratio measures in the light of study design and their reporting. 34 35

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Effect size according to study design.

Investigators sometimes either inappropriately label their study design 36 37 or report effect size measures not aligned with the study design, 38 39 leading to difficulty in results interpretation and evaluation of the level of evidence. The proper labeling of study design and the appropriate use of effect size measure have substantial implications for results interpretation, including the conduct of systematic review and meta-analysis. 40 A study 31 reviewed the frequency of reporting OR instead of RR in cohort studies and randomized clinical trials (RCTs) and found that one-third of the cohort studies used an OR model, whereas 5% of RCTs used an OR model. The majority of estimated ORs from these studies had a 20% or higher deviation from the corresponding RR.

Step 3: specify study hypothesis, reporting of p values, and interval estimates (interpretation and decision)

The clinical hypothesis provides information for evaluating formal claims specified in the study objectives, while the statistical hypothesis provides information about the population parameters/statistics being used to test the formal claims. The inference about the study hypothesis is typically measured by p value and confidence interval (CI). A smaller p value indicates that the data support against the null hypothesis. Since the p value is a conditional probability, it can never tell about the acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis. Therefore, multiple alternative strategies of p values have been proposed to strengthen the credibility of conclusions. 41 42 Adaption of these alternative strategies is only needed in the explanatory objective studies. Although exact p values are recommended to be reported in research studies, p values do not provide any information about the effect size. Compared with p values, the CI provides a confidence range of the effect size that contains the true effect size if the study were repeated and can be used to determine whether the results are statistically significant or not. 43 Both p value and 95% CI provide complementary information and thus need to be specified in the statistical analysis section. 24 44

Researchers often test one or more comparisons or hypotheses. Accordingly, the side and the level of significance for considering results to be statistically significant may change. Furthermore, studies may include more than one primary outcome that requires an adjustment in the level of significance for multiplicity. All studies should provide the interval estimate of the effect size/regression coefficient in the primary analyses. Since the interpretation of data analysis depends on the study hypothesis, researchers are required to specify the level of significance along with the side (one-sided or two-sided) of the p value in the test for considering statistically significant results, adjustment of the level of significance due to multiple comparisons or multiplicity, and reporting of interval estimates of the effect size in the statistical analysis section. 45

A study 46 showed a significant effect of fluoxetine on relapse rates in obsessive-compulsive disorder based on a one-sided p value of 0.04. Clearly, there was no reason for using a one-sided p value as opposed to a two-sided p value. A review of the appropriate use of multiple test correction methods in multiarm clinical trials published in major medical journals in 2012 identified over 50% of the articles did not perform multiple-testing correction. 47 Similar to controlling a familywise error rate due to multiple comparisons, adjustment of the false discovery rate is also critical in studies involving multiple related outcomes. A review of RCTs for depression between 2007 and 2008 from six journals reported that only limited studies (5.8%) accounted for multiplicity in the analyses due to multiple outcomes. 48

Step 4: account for DGP in the statistical analysis (accuracy)

The study design also requires the specification of the selection of participants and outcome measurement processes in different design settings. We referred to this specific design feature as DGP. Understanding DGP helps in determining appropriate modeling of outcome distribution in statistical analyses and setting up model premises and units of analysis. 4 DGP ( figure 3 ) involves information on data generation and data measures, including the number of measurements after random selection, complex selection, consecutive selection, pragmatic selection, or systematic selection. Specifically, DGP depends on a sampling setting (participants are selected using survey sampling methods and one subject may represent multiple participants in the population), clustered setting (participants are clustered through a recruitment setting or hierarchical setting or multiple hospitals), pragmatic setting (participants are selected through mixed approaches), or systematic review setting (participants are selected from published studies). DGP also depends on the measurements of outcomes in an unpaired setting (measured on one occasion only in independent groups), paired setting (measured on more than one occasion or participants are matched on certain subject characteristics), or mixed setting (measured on more than one occasion but interested in comparing independent groups). It also involves information regarding outcomes or exposure generation processes using quantitative or categorical variables, quantitative values using labs or validated instruments, and self-reported or administered tests yielding a variety of data distributions, including individual distribution, mixed-type distribution, mixed distributions, and latent distributions. Due to different DGPs, study data may include messy or missing data, incomplete/partial measurements, time-varying measurements, surrogate measures, latent measures, imbalances, unknown confounders, instrument variables, correlated responses, various levels of clustering, qualitative data, or mixed data outcomes, competing events, individual and higher-level variables, etc. The performance of statistical analysis, appropriate estimation of standard errors of estimates and subsequently computation of p values, the generalizability of findings, and the graphical display of data rely on DGP. Accounting for DGP in the analyses requires proper communication between investigators and biostatisticians about each aspect of participant selection and data collection, including measurements, occasions of measurements, and instruments used in the research study.

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Common features of the data generation process.

A study 49 compared the intake of fresh fruit and komatsuna juice with the intake of commercial vegetable juice on metabolic parameters in middle-aged men using an RCT. The study was criticized for many reasons, but primarily for incorrect statistical methods not aligned with the study DGP. 50 Similarly, another study 51 highlighted that 80% of published studies using the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey did not incorporate survey sampling structure in statistical analyses, producing biased estimates and inappropriate findings. Likewise, another study 52 highlighted the need for maintaining methodological standards while analyzing data from the National Inpatient Sample. A systematic review 53 identified that over 50% of studies did not specify whether a paired t-test or an unpaired t-test was performed in statistical analysis in the top 25% of physiology journals, indicating poor transparency in reporting of statistical analysis as per the data type. Another study 54 also highlighted the data displaying errors not aligned with DGP. As per DGP, delay in treatment initiation of patients with cancer defined from the onset of symptom to treatment initiation should be analyzed into three components: patient/primary delay, secondary delay, and tertiary delay. 55 Similarly, the number of cancerous nodes should be analyzed with count data models. 56 However, several studies did not analyze such data according to DGP. 57 58

Step 5: apply EBB methods specific to study design features and DGP (efficiency and robustness)

The continuous growth in the development of robust statistical methods for dealing with a specific problem produced various methods to analyze specific data types. Since multiple methods are available for handling a specific problem yet with varying performances, heterogeneous practices among applied researchers have been noticed. Variable practices could also be due to a lack of consensus on statistical methods in literature, unawareness, and the unavailability of standardized statistical guidelines. 2 5 59 However, it becomes sometimes difficult to differentiate whether a specific method was used due to its robustness, lack of awareness, lack of accessibility of statistical software to apply an alternative appropriate method, intention to produce expected results, or ignorance of model diagnostics. To avoid heterogeneous practices, the selection of statistical methodology and their reporting at each stage of data analysis should be conducted using methods according to EBB practice. 5 Since it is hard for applied researchers to optimally select statistical methodology at each step, we encourage investigators to involve biostatisticians at the very early stage in basic, clinical, population, translational, and database research. We also appeal to biostatisticians to develop guidelines, checklists, and educational tools to promote the concept of EBB. As an effort, we developed the statistical analysis and methods in biomedical research (SAMBR) guidelines for applied researchers to use EBB methods for data analysis. 5 The EBB practice is essential for applying recent cutting-edge robust methodologies to yield accurate and unbiased results. The efficiency of statistical methodologies depends on the assumptions and DGP. Therefore, investigators may attempt to specify the choice of specific models in the primary analysis as per the EBB.

Although details of evidence-based preferred methods are provided in the SAMBR checklists for each study design/objective, 5 we have presented a simplified version of evidence-based preferred methods for common statistical analysis ( online supplemental table 3 ). Several examples are available in the literature where inefficient methods not according to EBB practice have been used. 31 57 60

Step 6: report variable selection method in the multivariable analysis according to study objective type (unbiased)

Multivariable analysis can be used for association, prediction or classification or risk stratification, adjustment, propensity score development, and effect size estimation. 61 Some biological, clinical, behavioral, and environmental factors may directly associate or influence the relationship between exposure and outcome. Therefore, almost all health studies require multivariable analyses for accurate and unbiased interpretations of findings ( figure 1 ). Analysts should develop an adjusted model if the sample size permits. It is a misconception that the analysis of RCT does not require adjusted analysis. Analysis of RCT may require adjustment for prognostic variables. 23 The foremost step in model building is the entry of variables after finalizing the appropriate parametric or non-parametric regression model. In the exploratory model building process due to no preference of exposures, a backward automated approach after including any variables that are significant at 25% in the unadjusted analysis can be used for variable selection. 62 63 In the association model, a manual selection of covariates based on the relevance of the variables should be included in a fully adjusted model. 63 In a causal model, clinically guided methods should be used for variable selection and their adjustments. 20 In a non-randomized interventional model, efforts should be made to eliminate confounding effects through propensity score methods and the final propensity score-adjusted multivariable model may adjust any prognostic variables, while a randomized study simply should adjust any prognostic variables. 27 Maintaining the event per variable (EVR) is important to avoid overfitting in any type of modeling; therefore, screening of variables may be required in some association and explanatory studies, which may be accomplished using a backward stepwise method that needs to be clarified in the statistical analyses. 10 In a predictive study, a model with an optimum set of variables producing the highest accuracy should be used. The optimum set of variables may be screened with the random forest method or bootstrap or machine learning methods. 64 65 Different methods of variable selection and adjustments may lead to different results. The screening process of variables and their adjustments in the final multivariable model should be clearly mentioned in the statistical analysis section.

A study 66 evaluating the effect of hydroxychloroquine (HDQ) showed unfavorable events (intubation or death) in patients who received HDQ compared with those who did not (hazard ratio (HR): 2.37, 95% CI 1.84 to 3.02) in an unadjusted analysis. However, the propensity score-adjusted analyses as appropriate with the interventional objective model showed no significant association between HDQ use and unfavorable events (HR: 1.04, 95% CI 0.82 to 1.32), which was also confirmed in multivariable and other propensity score-adjusted analyses. This study clearly suggests that results interpretation should be based on a multivariable analysis only in observational studies if feasible. A recent study 10 noted that approximately 6% of multivariable analyses based on either logistic or Cox regression used an inappropriate selection method of variables in medical research. This practice was more commonly noted in studies that did not involve an expert biostatistician. Another review 61 of 316 articles from high-impact Chinese medical journals revealed that 30.7% of articles did not report the selection of variables in multivariable models. Indeed, this inappropriate practice could have been identified more commonly if classified according to the study objective type. 18 In RCTs, it is uncommon to report an adjusted analysis based on prognostic variables, even though an adjusted analysis may produce an efficient estimate compared with an unadjusted analysis. A study assessing the effect of preemptive intervention on development outcomes showed a significant effect of an intervention on reducing autism spectrum disorder symptoms. 67 However, this study was criticized by Ware 68 for not reporting non-significant results in unadjusted analyses. If possible, unadjusted estimates should also be reported in any study, particularly in RCTs. 23 68

Step 7: provide evidence for exploring effect modifiers (applicability)

Any variable that modifies the effect of exposure on the outcome is called an effect modifier or modifier or an interacting variable. Exploring the effect modifiers in multivariable analyses helps in (1) determining the applicability/generalizability of findings in the overall or specific subpopulation, (2) generating ideas for new hypotheses, (3) explaining uninterpretable findings between unadjusted and adjusted analyses, (4) guiding to present combined or separate models for each specific subpopulation, and (5) explaining heterogeneity in treatment effect. Often, investigators present adjusted stratified results according to the presence or absence of an effect modifier. If the exposure interacts with multiple variables statistically or conceptually in the model, then the stratified findings (subgroup) according to each effect modifier may be presented. Otherwise, stratified analysis substantially reduces the power of the study due to the lower sample size in each stratum and may produce significant results by inflating type I error. 69 Therefore, a multivariable analysis involving an interaction term as opposed to a stratified analysis may be presented in the presence of an effect modifier. 70 Sometimes, a quantitative variable may emerge as a potential effect modifier for exposure and an outcome relationship. In such a situation, the quantitative variable should not be categorized unless a clinically meaningful threshold is not available in the study. In fact, the practice of categorizing quantitative variables should be avoided in the analysis unless a clinically meaningful cut-off is available or a hypothesis requires for it. 71 In an exploratory objective type, any possible interaction may be obtained in a study; however, the interpretation should be guided based on clinical implications. Similarly, some objective models may have more than one exposure or intervention and the association of each exposure according to the level of other exposure should be presented through adjusted analyses as suggested in the presence of interaction effects. 70

A review of 428 articles from MEDLINE on the quality of reporting from statistical analyses of three (linear, logistic, and Cox) commonly used regression models reported that only 18.5% of the published articles provided interaction analyses, 17 even though interaction analyses can provide a lot of useful information.

Step 8: assessment of assumptions, specifically the distribution of outcome, linearity, multicollinearity, sparsity, and overfitting (reliability)

The assessment and reporting of model diagnostics are important in assessing the efficiency, validity, and usefulness of the model. Model diagnostics include satisfying model-specific assumptions and the assessment of sparsity, linearity, distribution of outcome, multicollinearity, and overfitting. 61 72 Model-specific assumptions such as normal residuals, heteroscedasticity and independence of errors in linear regression, proportionality in Cox regression, proportionality odds assumption in ordinal logistic regression, and distribution fit in other types of continuous and count models are required. In addition, sparsity should also be examined prior to selecting an appropriate model. Sparsity indicates many zero observations in the data set. 73 In the presence of sparsity, the effect size is difficult to interpret. Except for machine learning models, most of the parametric and semiparametric models require a linear relationship between independent variables and a functional form of an outcome. Linearity should be assessed using a multivariable polynomial in all model objectives. 62 Similarly, the appropriate choice of the distribution of outcome is required for model building in all study objective models. Multicollinearity assessment is also useful in all objective models. Assessment of EVR in multivariable analysis can be used to avoid the overfitting issue of a multivariable model. 18

Some review studies highlighted that 73.8%–92% of the articles published in MEDLINE had not assessed the model diagnostics of the multivariable regression models. 17 61 72 Contrary to the monotonically, linearly increasing relationship between systolic blood pressure (SBP) and mortality established using the Framingham’s study, 74 Port et al 75 reported a non-linear relationship between SBP and all-cause mortality or cardiovascular deaths by reanalysis of the Framingham’s study data set. This study identified a different threshold for treating hypertension, indicating the role of linearity assessment in multivariable models. Although a non-Gaussian distribution model may be required for modeling patient delay outcome data in cancer, 55 a study analyzed patient delay data using an ordinary linear regression model. 57 An investigation of the development of predictive models and their reporting in medical journals identified that 53% of the articles had fewer EVR than the recommended EVR, indicating over half of the published articles may have an overfitting model. 18 Another study 76 attempted to identify the anthropometric variables associated with non-insulin-dependent diabetes and found that none of the anthropometric variables were significant after adjusting for waist circumference, age, and sex, indicating the presence of collinearity. A study reported detailed sparse data problems in published studies and potential solutions. 73

Step 9: report type of primary and sensitivity analyses (consistency)

Numerous considerations and assumptions are made throughout the research processes that require assessment, evaluation, and validation. Some assumptions, executions, and errors made at the beginning of the study data collection may not be fixable 13 ; however, additional information collected during the study and data processing, including data distribution obtained at the end of the study, may facilitate additional considerations that need to be verified in the statistical analyses. Consistencies in the research findings via modifications in the outcome or exposure definition, study population, accounting for missing data, model-related assumptions, variables and their forms, and accounting for adherence to protocol in the models can be evaluated and reported in research studies using sensitivity analyses. 77 The purpose and type of supporting analyses need to be specified clearly in the statistical analyses to differentiate the main findings from the supporting findings. Sensitivity analyses are different from secondary or interim or subgroup analyses. 78 Data analyses for secondary outcomes are often referred to as secondary analyses, while data analyses of an ongoing study are called interim analyses and data analyses according to groups based on patient characteristics are known as subgroup analyses.

Almost all studies require some form of sensitivity analysis to validate the findings under different conditions. However, it is often underutilized in medical journals. Only 18%–20.3% of studies reported some forms of sensitivity analyses. 77 78 A review of nutritional trials from high-quality journals reflected that 17% of the conclusions were reported inappropriately using findings from sensitivity analyses not based on the primary/main analyses. 77

Step 10: provide methods for summarizing, displaying, and interpreting data (transparency and usability)

Data presentation includes data summary, data display, and data from statistical model analyses. The primary purpose of the data summary is to understand the distribution of outcome status and other characteristics in the total sample and by primary exposure status or outcome status. Column-wise data presentation should be preferred according to exposure status in all study designs, while row-wise data presentation for the outcome should be preferred in all study designs except for a case–control study. 24 32 Summary statistics should be used to provide maximum information on data distribution aligned with DGP and variable type. The purpose of results presentation primarily from regression analyses or statistical models is to convey results interpretation and implications of findings. The results should be presented according to the study objective type. Accordingly, the reporting of unadjusted and adjusted associations of each factor with the outcome may be preferred in the determinant objective model, while unadjusted and adjusted effects of primary exposure on the outcome may be preferred in the explanatory objective model. In prognostic models, the final predictive models may be presented in such a way that users can use models to predict an outcome. In the exploratory objective model, a final multivariable model should be reported with R 2 or area under the curve (AUC). In the association and interventional models, the assessment of internal validation is critically important through various sensitivity and validation analyses. A model with better fit indices (in terms of R 2 or AUC, Akaike information criterion, Bayesian information criterion, fit index, root mean square error) should be finalized and reported in the causal model objective study. In the predictive objective type, the model performance in terms of R 2 or AUC in training and validation data sets needs to be reported ( figure 1 ). 20 21 There are multiple purposes of data display, including data distribution using bar diagram or histogram or frequency polygons or box plots, comparisons using cluster bar diagram or scatter dot plot or stacked bar diagram or Kaplan-Meier plot, correlation or model assessment using scatter plot or scatter matrix, clustering or pattern using heatmap or line plots, the effect of predictors with fitted models using marginsplot, and comparative evaluation of effect sizes from regression models using forest plot. Although the key purpose of data display is to highlight critical issues or findings in the study, data display should essentially follow DGP and variable types and should be user-friendly. 54 79 Data interpretation heavily relies on the effect size measure along with study design and specified hypotheses. Sometimes, variables require standardization for descriptive comparison of effect sizes among exposures or interpreting small effect size, or centralization for interpreting intercept or avoiding collinearity due to interaction terms, or transformation for achieving model-related assumptions. 80 Appropriate methods of data reporting and interpretation aligned with study design, study hypothesis, and effect size measure should be specified in the statistical analysis section of research studies.

Published articles from reputed journals inappropriately summarized a categorized variable with mean and range, 81 summarized a highly skewed variable with mean and standard deviation, 57 and treated a categorized variable as a continuous variable in regression analyses. 82 Similarly, numerous examples from published studies reporting inappropriate graphical display or inappropriate interpretation of data not aligned with DGP or variable types are illustrated in a book published by Bland and Peacock. 83 84 A study used qualitative data on MRI but inappropriately presented with a Box-Whisker plot. 81 Another study reported unusually high OR for an association between high breast parenchymal enhancement and breast cancer in both premenopausal and postmenopausal women. 85 This reporting makes suspicious findings and may include sparse data bias. 86 A poor tabular presentation without proper scaling or standardization of a variable, missing CI for some variables, missing unit and sample size, and inconsistent reporting of decimal places could be easily noticed in table 4 of a published study. 29 Some published predictive models 87 do not report intercept or baseline survival estimates to use their predictive models in clinical use. Although a direct comparison of effect sizes obtained from the same model may be avoided if the units are different among variables, 35 a study had an objective to compare effect sizes across variables but the authors performed comparisons without standardization of variables or using statistical tests. 88

A sample for writing statistical analysis section in medical journals/research studies

Our primary study objective type was to develop a (select from figure 1 ) model to assess the relationship of risk factors (list critical variables or exposures) with outcomes (specify type from continuous/discrete/count/binary/polytomous/time-to-event). To address this objective, we conducted a (select from figure 2 or any other) study design to test the hypotheses of (equality or superiority or non-inferiority or equivalence or futility) or develop prediction. Accordingly, the other variables were adjusted or considered as (specify role of variables from confounders, covariates, or predictors or independent variables) as reflected in the conceptual framework. In the unadjusted or preliminary analyses as per the (select from figure 3 or any other design features) DGP, (specify EBB preferred tests from online supplemental table 3 or any other appropriate tests) were used for (specify variables and types) in unadjusted analyses. According to the EBB practice for the outcome (specify type) and DGP of (select from figure 3 or any other), we used (select from online supplemental table 1 or specify a multivariable approach) as the primary model in the multivariable analysis. We used (select from figure 1 ) variable selection method in the multivariable analysis and explored the interaction effects between (specify variables). The model diagnostics including (list all applicable, including model-related assumptions, linearity, or multicollinearity or overfitting or distribution of outcome or sparsity) were also assessed using (specify appropriate methods) respectively. In such exploration, we identified (specify diagnostic issues if any) and therefore the multivariable models were developed using (specify potential methods used to handle diagnostic issues). The other outcomes were analyzed with (list names of multivariable approaches with respective outcomes). All the models used the same procedure (or specify from figure 1 ) for variable selection, exploration of interaction effects, and model diagnostics using (specify statistical approaches) depending on the statistical models. As per the study design, hypothesis, and multivariable analysis, the results were summarized with effect size (select as appropriate or from figure 2 ) along with (specify 95% CI or other interval estimates) and considered statistically significant using (specify the side of p value or alternatives) at (specify the level of significance) due to (provide reasons for choosing a significance level). We presented unadjusted and/or adjusted estimates of primary outcome according to (list primary exposures or variables). Additional analyses were conducted for (specific reasons from step 9) using (specify methods) to validate findings obtained in the primary analyses. The data were summarized with (list summary measures and appropriate graphs from step 10), whereas the final multivariable model performance was summarized with (fit indices if applicable from step 10). We also used (list graphs) as appropriate with DGP (specify from figure 3 ) to present the critical findings or highlight (specify data issues) using (list graphs/methods) in the study. The exposures or variables were used in (specify the form of the variables) and therefore the effect or association of (list exposures or variables) on outcome should be interpreted in terms of changes in (specify interpretation unit) exposures/variables. List all other additional analyses if performed (with full details of all models in a supplementary file along with statistical codes if possible).

Concluding remarks

We highlighted 10 essential steps to be reported in the statistical analysis section of any analytical study ( figure 4 ). Adherence to minimum reporting of the steps specified in this report may enforce investigators to understand concepts and approach biostatisticians timely to apply these concepts in their study to improve the overall quality of methodological standards in grant proposals and research studies. The order of reporting information in statistical analyses specified in this report is not mandatory; however, clear reporting of analytical steps applicable to the specific study type should be mentioned somewhere in the manuscript. Since the entire approach of statistical analyses is dependent on the study objective type and EBB practice, proper execution and reporting of statistical models can be taught to the next generation of statisticians by the study objective type in statistical education courses. In fact, some disciplines ( figure 5 ) are strictly aligned with specific study objective types. Bioinformaticians are oriented in studying determinant and prognostic models toward precision medicine, while epidemiologists are oriented in studying association and causal models, particularly in population-based observational and pragmatic settings. Data scientists are heavily involved in prediction and classification models in personalized medicine. A common thing across disciplines is using biostatistical principles and computation tools to address any research question. Sometimes, one discipline expert does the part of others. 89 We strongly recommend using a team science approach that includes an epidemiologist, biostatistician, data scientist, and bioinformatician depending on the study objectives and needs. Clear reporting of data analyses as per the study objective type should be encouraged among all researchers to minimize heterogeneous practices and improve scientific quality and outcomes. In addition, we also encourage investigators to strictly follow transparent reporting and quality assessment guidelines according to the study design ( https://www.equator-network.org/ ) to improve the overall quality of the study, accordingly STROBE (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) for observational studies, CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) for clinical trials, STARD (Standards for Reporting Diagnostic Accuracy Studies) for diagnostic studies, TRIPOD (Transparent Reporting of a multivariable prediction model for Individual Prognosis OR Diagnosis) for prediction modeling, and ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments) for preclinical studies. The steps provided in this document for writing the statistical analysis section is essentially different from other guidance documents, including SAMBR. 5 SAMBR provides a guidance document for selecting evidence-based preferred methods of statistical analysis according to different study designs, while this report suggests the global reporting of essential information in the statistical analysis section according to study objective type. In this guidance report, our suggestion strictly pertains to the reporting of methods in the statistical analysis section and their implications on the interpretation of results. Our document does not provide guidance on the reporting of sample size or results or statistical analysis section for meta-analysis. The examples and reviews reported in this study may be used to emphasize the concepts and related implications in medical research.

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Summary of reporting steps, purpose, and evaluation measures in the statistical analysis section.

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Role of interrelated disciplines according to study objective type.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank the reviewers for their careful review and insightful suggestions.

Contributors: AKD developed the concept and design and wrote the manuscript.

Funding: The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests: AKD is a Journal of Investigative Medicine Editorial Board member. No other competing interests declared.

Provenance and peer review: Commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Supplemental material: This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

Data availability statement

Ethics statements, patient consent for publication.

Not required.

how to write the analysis section of a research paper

Research Voyage

Research Tips and Infromation

07 Easy Steps for Writing Discussion Section of a Research Paper

Discussion Section of Research Paper

Introduction

I. focus on the relevance.

  • II. Highlight  the Limitations 
  • III. Introduce  New Discoveries

IV. Highlight the Observations

V. compare and relate with other research works.

  • VI. Provide  Alternate View Points

A. Future Directions

B. conclusion, how to validate the claims i made in the discussion section of my research paper, phrases that can be used in the discussion section of a research paper, phrases that can be used in the analysis part of the discussion section of a research paper.

  • Your Next Move...

Whether charts and graphs are allowed in discussion section of my Research Paper?

Can i add citations in discussion section of my research paper, can i combine results and discussion section in my research paper, what is the weightage of discussion section in a research paper in terms of selection to a journal, whether literature survey paper has a discussion section.

The Discussion section of a research paper is where authors interpret their findings, contextualize their research, and propose future directions. It is a crucial section that provides the reader with insights into the significance and implications of the study.

Writing an effective discussion section is a crucial aspect of any research paper, as it allows researchers to delve into the significance of their findings and explore their implications. A well-crafted discussion section not only summarizes the key observations and limitations of the study but also establishes connections with existing research and opens avenues for future exploration. In this article, we will present a comprehensive guide to help you structure your discussion section in seven simple steps.

By following these steps, you’ll be able to write a compelling Discussion section that enhances the reader’s understanding of your research and contributes to the broader scientific community.

Please note, the discussion section usually follows after the Results Section. I have written a comprehensive article on ” How to Write Results Section of your Research Paper “. Please visit the article to enhance your write-up on the results section.

Which are these 07 steps for writing an Effective Discussion Section of a Research Paper?

Step 1: Focus on the Relevance : In the first step, we will discuss the importance of emphasizing the relevance of your research findings to the broader scientific context. By clearly articulating the significance of your study, you can help readers understand how your work contributes to the existing body of knowledge and why it matters.

Step 2: Highlight the Limitations : Every research study has its limitations, and it is essential to address them honestly and transparently. We will explore how to identify and describe the limitations of your study, demonstrating a thorough understanding of potential weaknesses and areas for improvement.

Step 3: Highlight the Observations : In this step, we will delve into the core findings of your study. We will discuss the key observations and results, focusing on their relevance to your research objectives. By providing a concise summary of your findings, you can guide readers through the main outcomes of your study.

Step 4: Compare and Relate with Other Research Works : Research is a collaborative and cumulative process, and it is vital to establish connections between your study and previous research. We will explore strategies to compare and relate your findings to existing literature, highlighting similarities, differences, and gaps in knowledge.

Step 5: Provide Alternate Viewpoints: Science thrives on the diversity of perspectives. Acknowledging different viewpoints and interpretations of your results fosters a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic. We will discuss how to incorporate alternative viewpoints into your discussion, encouraging a balanced and nuanced analysis.

Step 6: Show Future Directions : A well-crafted discussion section not only summarizes the present but also points towards the future. We will explore techniques to suggest future research directions based on the implications of your study, providing a roadmap for further investigations in the field.

Step 7: Concluding Thoughts : In the final step, we will wrap up the discussion section by summarizing the key points and emphasizing the overall implications of your research. We will discuss the significance of your study’s contributions and offer some closing thoughts to leave a lasting impression on your readers.

By following these seven steps, you can craft a comprehensive and insightful discussion section that not only synthesizes your findings but also engages readers in a thought-provoking dialogue about the broader implications and future directions of your research. Let’s delve into each step in detail to enhance the quality and impact of your discussion section.

The purpose of every research is to implement the results for the positive development of the relevant subject. In research, it is crucial to emphasize the relevance of your study to the field and its potential impact. Before delving into the details of how the research was conceived and the sequence of developments that took place, consider highlighting the following factors to establish the relevance of your work:

  • Identifying a pressing problem or research gap: Example: “This research addresses the critical problem of network security in wireless communication systems. With the widespread adoption of wireless networks, the vulnerability to security threats has increased significantly. Existing security mechanisms have limitations in effectively mitigating these threats. Therefore, there is a pressing need to develop novel approaches that enhance the security of wireless communication systems.”
  • Explaining the significance and potential impact of the research: Example: “By developing an intelligent intrusion detection system using machine learning algorithms, this research aims to significantly enhance the security of wireless networks. The successful implementation of such a system would not only protect sensitive data and communication but also ensure the reliability and integrity of wireless networks in various applications, including Internet of Things (IoT), smart cities, and critical infrastructure.”
  • Establishing connections with previous research and advancements in the field: Example: “This study builds upon previous research on intrusion detection systems and machine learning techniques. By leveraging recent advancements in deep learning algorithms and anomaly detection methods, we aim to overcome the limitations of traditional rule-based intrusion detection systems and achieve higher detection accuracy and efficiency.”

By emphasizing the relevance of your research and articulating its potential impact, you set the stage for readers to understand the significance of your work in the broader context. This approach ensures that readers grasp the motivations behind your research and the need for further exploration in the field.

II. Highlight  the Limitations 

Many times the research is on a subject that might have legal limitations or restrictions. This limitation might have caused certain imperfections in carrying out research or in results. This issue should be acknowledged by the researcher before the work is criticized by others later in his/her discussion section.

In computer science research, it is important to identify and openly acknowledge the limitations of your study. By doing so, you demonstrate transparency and a thorough understanding of potential weaknesses, allowing readers to interpret the findings in a more informed manner. Here’s an example:

Example: “It is crucial to acknowledge certain limitations and constraints that have affected the outcomes of this research. In the context of privacy-sensitive applications such as facial recognition systems, there are legal limitations and ethical concerns that can impact the accuracy and performance of the developed algorithm. These limitations stem from regulations and policies that impose restrictions on data collection, access, and usage to protect individuals’ privacy rights. As a result, the algorithm developed in this study operates under these legal constraints, which may have introduced certain imperfections.”

In this example, the researcher is working on a facial recognition system and acknowledges the legal limitations and ethical concerns associated with privacy-sensitive applications. By openly addressing these limitations, the researcher demonstrates an understanding of the challenges imposed by regulations and policies. This acknowledgement sets the stage for a more nuanced discussion and prevents others from solely criticizing the work based on these limitations without considering the broader legal context.

By highlighting the limitations, researchers can also offer potential solutions or future directions to mitigate the impact of these constraints. For instance, the researcher may suggest exploring advanced privacy-preserving techniques or collaborating with legal experts to find a balance between privacy protection and system performance.

By acknowledging and addressing the limitations, researchers demonstrate their awareness of potential weaknesses in their study, maintaining credibility, and fostering a more constructive discussion of their findings within the context of legal and ethical considerations.

III. Introduce  New Discoveries

Begin the discussion section by stating all the major findings in the course of the research. The first paragraph should have the findings mentioned, which is expected to be synoptic, naming and briefly describing the analysis of results.

Example: “In this study, several significant discoveries emerged from the analysis of the collected data. The findings revealed compelling insights into the performance of parallel computing architectures for large-scale data processing. Through comprehensive experimentation and analysis, the following key discoveries were made:

  • Discovery 1: The proposed parallel computing architecture demonstrated a 30% improvement in processing speed compared to traditional sequential computing methods. This finding highlights the potential of parallel computing for accelerating data-intensive tasks.
  • Discovery 2: A direct relationship between the number of processing cores and the overall system throughput was observed. As the number of cores increased, the system exhibited a near-linear scalability, enabling efficient utilization of available computational resources.
  • Discovery 3: The analysis revealed a trade-off between processing speed and energy consumption. While parallel computing achieved faster processing times, it also resulted in higher energy consumption. This finding emphasizes the importance of optimizing energy efficiency in parallel computing systems.

These discoveries shed light on the performance characteristics and trade-offs associated with parallel computing architectures for large-scale data processing tasks. The following sections will delve into the implications of these findings, discussing their significance, limitations, and potential applications.”

In this example, the researcher presents a concise overview of the major discoveries made during the research. Each discovery is briefly described, highlighting the key insights obtained from the analysis. By summarizing the findings in a synoptic manner, the reader gains an immediate understanding of the notable contributions and can anticipate the subsequent detailed discussion.

This approach allows the discussion section to begin with a clear and impactful introduction of the major discoveries, capturing the reader’s interest and setting the stage for a comprehensive exploration of each finding in subsequent paragraphs.

Coming to the major part of the findings, the discussion section should interpret the key observations, the analysis of charts, and the analysis of tables. In the field of computer science, presenting and explaining the results in a clear and accessible manner is essential for readers to grasp the significance of the findings. Here are some examples of how to effectively highlight observations in computer science research:

Begin with explaining the objective of the research, followed by what inspired you as a researcher to study the subject:

In a study on machine learning algorithms for sentiment analysis, start by stating the goal of developing an accurate and efficient sentiment analysis model. Share your motivation for choosing this research topic, such as the increasing importance of sentiment analysis in various domains like social media, customer feedback analysis, and market research.

Example: The objective of this research was to develop a sentiment analysis model using machine learning algorithms. As sentiment analysis plays a vital role in understanding public opinion and customer feedback, we were motivated by the need for an accurate and efficient model that could be applied in various domains such as social media analysis, customer reviews, and market research.

Explain the meaning of the findings, as every reader might not understand the analysis of graphs and charts as easily as people who are in the same field as you:

If your research involves analyzing performance metrics of different algorithms, consider presenting the results in a visually intuitive manner, such as line graphs or bar charts. In the discussion section, explain the significance of the trends observed in the graphs. For instance, if a particular algorithm consistently outperforms others in terms of accuracy, explain why this finding is noteworthy and how it aligns with existing knowledge in the field.

Example: To present the performance evaluation of the algorithms, we analyzed multiple metrics, including precision, recall, and F1 score. The line graph in Figure 1 demonstrates the trends observed. It is noteworthy that Algorithm A consistently outperformed the other algorithms across all metrics. This finding indicates that Algorithm A has a higher ability to accurately classify sentiment in comparison to its counterparts. This aligns with previous studies that have also highlighted the robustness of Algorithm A in sentiment analysis tasks.

Ensure the reader can understand the key observations without being forced to go through the whole paper:

In computer science research, it is crucial to present concise summaries of your key observations to facilitate understanding for readers who may not have the time or expertise to go through the entire paper. For example, if your study compares the runtime performance of two programming languages for a specific task, clearly state the observed differences and their implications. Highlight any unexpected or notable findings that may challenge conventional wisdom or open up new avenues for future exploration.

Example: In this study comparing the runtime performance of Python and Java for a specific computational task, we observed notable differences. Python consistently showed faster execution times, averaging 20% less time than Java across varying input sizes. These results challenge the common perception that Java is the superior choice for computationally intensive tasks. The observed performance advantage of Python in this context suggests the need for further investigation into the underlying factors contributing to this discrepancy, such as differences in language design and optimization strategies.

By employing these strategies, researchers can effectively highlight their observations in the discussion section. This enables readers to gain a clear understanding of the significance of the findings and their implications without having to delve into complex technical details.

No one is ever the only person researching a particular subject. A researcher always has companions and competitors. The discussion section should have a detailed comparison of the research. It should present the facts that relate the research to studies done on the same subject.

Example: The table below compares some of the well-known prediction techniques with our fuzzy predictor with MOM defuzzification for response time, relative error and Environmental constraints. Based on the results obtained it can be concluded that the Fuzzy predictor with MOM defuzzification has a less relative error and quick response time as compared to other prediction techniques.  The proposed predictor is more flexible, simple to implement and deals with noisy and uncertain data from real-life situations. The relative error of 5-10% is acceptable for our system as the predicted fuzzy region and the fuzzy region of the actual position remains the same.

Table 1 : Comparison of well-known Robot Motion prediction Techniques

VI. Provide  Alternate View Points

Almost every time, it has been noticed that analysis of charts and graphs shows results that tend to have more than one explanation. The researcher must consider every possible explanation and potential enhancement of the study from alternative viewpoints. It is critically important that this is clearly put out to the readers in the discussion section.

In the discussion section of a research paper, it is important to acknowledge that data analysis often yields results that can be interpreted in multiple ways. By considering different viewpoints and potential enhancements, researchers can provide a more comprehensive and nuanced analysis of their findings. Here are some examples:

Example 1: “The analysis of our experimental data showed a decrease in system performance following the implementation of the proposed optimization technique. While our initial interpretation suggested that the optimization failed to achieve the desired outcome, an alternate viewpoint could be that the decrease in performance was influenced by an external factor, such as the configuration of the hardware setup. Further investigation into the hardware settings and benchmarking protocols is necessary to fully understand the observed results and identify potential enhancements.”

Example 2: “The analysis of user feedback revealed a mixed response to the redesigned user interface. While some participants reported improved usability and satisfaction, others expressed confusion and dissatisfaction. An alternate viewpoint could be that the diverse range of user backgrounds and preferences might have influenced these varied responses. Further research should focus on conducting user studies with a larger and more diverse sample to gain a deeper understanding of the underlying factors contributing to the contrasting user experiences.”

Example 3: “Our study found a positive correlation between the implementation of agile methodologies and project success rates. However, an alternate viewpoint suggests that other factors, such as team dynamics and project complexity, could have influenced the observed correlation. Future research should explore the interactions between agile methodologies and these potential confounding factors to gain a more comprehensive understanding of their impact on project success.”

In these examples, researchers present alternative viewpoints that offer different interpretations or explanations for the observed results. By acknowledging these alternate viewpoints, researchers demonstrate a balanced and comprehensive analysis of their findings. It is crucial to clearly communicate these alternative perspectives to readers in the discussion section, as it encourages critical thinking and highlights the complexity and potential limitations of the research.

By presenting alternate viewpoints, researchers invite further exploration and discussion, fostering a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic. This approach enriches the scientific discourse and promotes a deeper analysis of the findings, contributing to the overall advancement of knowledge in the field.

VII. Future Directions and Conclusion

The section must have suggestions for research that should be done to unanswered questions. These should be suggested at the beginning of the discussion section to avoid questions being asked by critics. Emphasizing the importance of following future directions can lead to new research as well.

Example: ” While this study provides valuable insights into the performance of the proposed algorithm, there are several unanswered questions and avenues for future research that merit attention. By identifying these areas, we aim to stimulate further exploration and contribute to the continuous advancement of the field. The following future directions are suggested:

  • Future Direction 1: Investigating the algorithm’s performance under different dataset characteristics and distributions. The current study focused on a specific dataset, but it would be valuable to evaluate the algorithm’s robustness and generalizability across a broader range of datasets, including real-world scenarios and diverse data sources.
  • Future Direction 2: Exploring the potential integration of additional machine learning techniques or ensemble methods to further enhance the algorithm’s accuracy and reliability. By combining the strengths of multiple models, it is possible to achieve better performance and handle complex patterns and outliers more effectively.
  • Future Direction 3: Extending the evaluation to consider the algorithm’s scalability in large-scale deployment scenarios. As the volume of data continues to grow exponentially, it is crucial to assess the algorithm’s efficiency and scalability in handling big data processing requirements.

By suggesting these future directions, we hope to inspire researchers to explore new avenues and build upon the foundation laid by this study. Addressing these unanswered questions will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the algorithm’s capabilities and limitations, paving the way for further advancements in the field.”

In this example, the researcher presents specific future directions that can guide further research. Each future direction is described concisely, highlighting the specific area of investigation and the potential benefits of pursuing those directions. By suggesting these future directions early in the discussion section, the researcher proactively addresses potential questions or criticisms and demonstrates a proactive approach to knowledge expansion.

By emphasizing the importance of following future directions, researchers not only inspire others to continue the research trajectory but also contribute to the collective growth of the field. This approach encourages ongoing exploration, innovation, and collaboration, ensuring the continuous development and improvement of computer science research.

In the final step, wrap up the discussion section by summarizing the key points and emphasizing the overall implications of your research. We will discuss the significance of your study’s contributions and offer some closing thoughts to leave a lasting impression on your readers. This section serves as a crucial opportunity to reinforce the main findings and highlight the broader impact of your work. Here are some examples:

Example 1: “In conclusion, this research has made significant contributions to the field of natural language processing. By proposing a novel neural network architecture for language generation, we have demonstrated the effectiveness and versatility of the model in generating coherent and contextually relevant sentences. The experimental results indicate a significant improvement in language generation quality compared to existing approaches. The implications of this research extend beyond traditional applications, opening up new possibilities for automated content creation, chatbot systems, and dialogue generation in artificial intelligence.”

Example 2: “In summary, this study has provided valuable insights into the optimization of network routing protocols for wireless sensor networks. By proposing a novel hybrid routing algorithm that combines the advantages of both reactive and proactive protocols, we have demonstrated enhanced network performance in terms of latency, energy efficiency, and scalability. The experimental results validate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm in dynamic and resource-constrained environments. These findings have implications for various applications, including environmental monitoring, industrial automation, and smart city infrastructure.”

Example 3: “In closing, this research sheds light on the security vulnerabilities of blockchain-based smart contracts. By conducting an extensive analysis of existing smart contract platforms and identifying potential attack vectors, we have highlighted the need for robust security measures to mitigate risks and protect user assets. The insights gained from this study can guide the development of more secure and reliable smart contract frameworks, ensuring the integrity and trustworthiness of blockchain-based applications across industries such as finance, supply chain, and decentralized applications.”

In these examples, the concluding thoughts summarize the main contributions and findings of the research. They emphasize the significance of the study’s implications and highlight the potential impact on various domains within computer science. By providing a succinct and impactful summary, the researcher leaves a lasting impression on readers, reinforcing the value and relevance of the research in the field.

Validating claims in the discussion section of a research paper is essential to ensure the credibility and reliability of your findings. Here are some strategies to validate the claims made in the discussion section:

  • Referencing supporting evidence: Cite relevant sources from the existing literature that provide evidence or support for your claims. These sources can include peer-reviewed studies, research articles, and authoritative sources in your field. By referencing credible and reputable sources, you establish the validity of your claims and demonstrate that your interpretations are grounded in existing knowledge.
  • Relating to the results: Connect your claims to the results presented in the earlier sections of your research paper. Clearly demonstrate how the findings support your claims and provide evidence for your interpretations. Refer to specific data, measurements, statistical analyses, or other evidence from your results section to substantiate your claims.
  • Comparing with previous research: Discuss how your findings align with or diverge from previous research in the field. Reference relevant studies and explain how your results compare to or build upon existing knowledge. By contextualizing your claims within the broader research landscape, you provide further validation for your interpretations.
  • Addressing limitations and alternative explanations: Acknowledge the limitations of your study and consider alternative explanations for your findings. By addressing potential counterarguments and alternative viewpoints, you demonstrate a thorough evaluation of your claims and increase the robustness of your conclusions.
  • Seeking peer feedback: Prior to submitting your research paper, consider seeking feedback from colleagues or experts in your field. They can provide valuable insights and suggestions for further validating your claims or improving the clarity of your arguments.
  • Inviting replication and further research: Encourage other researchers to replicate your study or conduct further investigations. By promoting replication and future research, you contribute to the ongoing validation and refinement of your claims.

Remember, the validation of claims in the discussion section is a critical aspect of scientific research. By employing rigorous methods and logical reasoning, you can strengthen the credibility and impact of your findings and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in your field.

Here are some common phrases that can be used in the discussion section of a paper or research article. I’ve included a table with examples to illustrate how these phrases might be used:

Here are some common academic phrases that can be used in the analysis section of a paper or research article. I have included a table with examples to illustrate how these phrases might be used:

Your Next Move…

I believe you will proceed to write conclusion section of your research paper. Conclusion section is the most neglected part of the research paper as many authors feel it is unnecessary but write in a hurry to submit the article to some reputed journal.

Please note, once your paper gets published , the readers decide to read your full paper based only on abstract and conclusion. They decide the relevance of the paper based on only these two sections. If they don’t read then they don’t cite and this in turn affects your citation score. So my sincere advice to you is not to neglect this section.

Visit my article on “How to Write Conclusion Section of Research Paper” for further details.

Please visit my article on “ Importance and Improving of Citation Score for Your Research Paper ” for increasing your visibility in research community and on Google Scholar Citation Score.

The Discussion section of a research paper is an essential part of any study, as it allows the author to interpret their results and contextualize their findings. To write an effective Discussion section, authors should focus on the relevance of their research, highlight the limitations, introduce new discoveries, highlight their observations, compare and relate their findings to other research works, provide alternate viewpoints, and show future directions.

By following these 7 steps, authors can ensure that their Discussion section is comprehensive, informative, and thought-provoking. A well-written Discussion section not only helps the author interpret their results but also provides insights into the implications and applications of their research.

In conclusion, the Discussion section is an integral part of any research paper, and by following these 7 steps, authors can write a compelling and informative discussion section that contributes to the broader scientific community.

Frequently Asked Questions

Yes, charts and graphs are generally allowed in the discussion section of a research paper. While the discussion section is primarily focused on interpreting and discussing the findings, incorporating visual aids such as charts and graphs can be helpful in presenting and supporting the analysis.

Yes, you can add citations in the discussion section of your research paper. In fact, it is highly recommended to support your statements, interpretations, and claims with relevant and credible sources. Citations in the discussion section help to strengthen the validity and reliability of your arguments and demonstrate that your findings are grounded in existing literature.

Combining the results and discussion sections in a research paper is a common practice in certain disciplines, particularly in shorter research papers or those with specific formatting requirements. This approach can help streamline the presentation of your findings and provide a more cohesive narrative. However, it is important to note that the decision to combine these sections should be based on the guidelines of the target journal or publication and the specific requirements of your field.

The weightage of the discussion section in terms of the selection of a research paper for publication in a journal can vary depending on the specific requirements and criteria of the journal. However, it is important to note that the discussion section is a critical component of a research paper as it allows researchers to interpret their findings, contextualize them within the existing literature, and discuss their implications.

In general, literature survey papers typically do not have a separate section explicitly labeled as “Discussion.” However, the content of a literature survey paper often incorporates elements of discussion throughout the paper. The focus of a literature survey paper is to review and summarize existing literature on a specific topic or research question, rather than presenting original research findings.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

  • 6. The Methodology
  • Purpose of Guide
  • Design Flaws to Avoid
  • Independent and Dependent Variables
  • Glossary of Research Terms
  • Reading Research Effectively
  • Narrowing a Topic Idea
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  • Primary Sources
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The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

  • Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
  • Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
  • In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
  • The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
  • The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
  • The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
  • In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

  • The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
  • The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II.  Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

  • Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
  • Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
  • The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
  • The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

  • Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
  • Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
  • Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
  • Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
  • Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
  • Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
  • Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
  • Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE :   Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE : If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE :   If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III.  Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

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How to write the results section of a research paper

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Table of Contents

At its core, a research paper aims to fill a gap in the research on a given topic. As a result, the results section of the paper, which describes the key findings of the study, is often considered the core of the paper. This is the section that gets the most attention from reviewers, peers, students, and any news organization reporting on your findings. Writing a clear, concise, and logical results section is, therefore, one of the most important parts of preparing your manuscript.

Difference between results and discussion

Before delving into how to write the results section, it is important to first understand the difference between the results and discussion sections. The results section needs to detail the findings of the study. The aim of this section is not to draw connections between the different findings or to compare it to previous findings in literature—that is the purview of the discussion section. Unlike the discussion section, which can touch upon the hypothetical, the results section needs to focus on the purely factual. In some cases, it may even be preferable to club these two sections together into a single section. For example, while writing  a review article, it can be worthwhile to club these two sections together, as the main results in this case are the conclusions that can be drawn from the literature.

Structure of the results section

Although the main purpose of the results section in a research paper is to report the findings, it is necessary to present an introduction and repeat the research question. This establishes a connection to the previous section of the paper and creates a smooth flow of information.

Next, the results section needs to communicate the findings of your research in a systematic manner. The section needs to be organized such that the primary research question is addressed first, then the secondary research questions. If the research addresses multiple questions, the results section must individually connect with each of the questions. This ensures clarity and minimizes confusion while reading.

Consider representing your results visually. For example, graphs, tables, and other figures can help illustrate the findings of your paper, especially if there is a large amount of data in the results.

Remember, an appealing results section can help peer reviewers better understand the merits of your research, thereby increasing your chances of publication.

Practical guidance for writing an effective results section for a research paper

  • Always use simple and clear language. Avoid the use of uncertain or out-of-focus expressions.
  • The findings of the study must be expressed in an objective and unbiased manner. While it is acceptable to correlate certain findings in the discussion section, it is best to avoid overinterpreting the results.
  • If the research addresses more than one hypothesis, use sub-sections to describe the results. This prevents confusion and promotes understanding.
  • Ensure that negative results are included in this section, even if they do not support the research hypothesis.
  • Wherever possible, use illustrations like tables, figures, charts, or other visual representations to showcase the results of your research paper. Mention these illustrations in the text, but do not repeat the information that they convey.
  • For statistical data, it is adequate to highlight the tests and explain their results. The initial or raw data should not be mentioned in the results section of a research paper.

The results section of a research paper is usually the most impactful section because it draws the greatest attention. Regardless of the subject of your research paper, a well-written results section is capable of generating interest in your research.

For detailed information and assistance on writing the results of a research paper, refer to Elsevier Author Services.

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How to Write a Research Paper | A Beginner's Guide

A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, and argument based on in-depth independent research.

Research papers are similar to academic essays , but they are usually longer and more detailed assignments, designed to assess not only your writing skills but also your skills in scholarly research. Writing a research paper requires you to demonstrate a strong knowledge of your topic, engage with a variety of sources, and make an original contribution to the debate.

This step-by-step guide takes you through the entire writing process, from understanding your assignment to proofreading your final draft.

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Table of contents

Understand the assignment, choose a research paper topic, conduct preliminary research, develop a thesis statement, create a research paper outline, write a first draft of the research paper, write the introduction, write a compelling body of text, write the conclusion, the second draft, the revision process, research paper checklist, free lecture slides.

Completing a research paper successfully means accomplishing the specific tasks set out for you. Before you start, make sure you thoroughly understanding the assignment task sheet:

  • Read it carefully, looking for anything confusing you might need to clarify with your professor.
  • Identify the assignment goal, deadline, length specifications, formatting, and submission method.
  • Make a bulleted list of the key points, then go back and cross completed items off as you’re writing.

Carefully consider your timeframe and word limit: be realistic, and plan enough time to research, write, and edit.

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how to write the analysis section of a research paper

There are many ways to generate an idea for a research paper, from brainstorming with pen and paper to talking it through with a fellow student or professor.

You can try free writing, which involves taking a broad topic and writing continuously for two or three minutes to identify absolutely anything relevant that could be interesting.

You can also gain inspiration from other research. The discussion or recommendations sections of research papers often include ideas for other specific topics that require further examination.

Once you have a broad subject area, narrow it down to choose a topic that interests you, m eets the criteria of your assignment, and i s possible to research. Aim for ideas that are both original and specific:

  • A paper following the chronology of World War II would not be original or specific enough.
  • A paper on the experience of Danish citizens living close to the German border during World War II would be specific and could be original enough.

Note any discussions that seem important to the topic, and try to find an issue that you can focus your paper around. Use a variety of sources , including journals, books, and reliable websites, to ensure you do not miss anything glaring.

Do not only verify the ideas you have in mind, but look for sources that contradict your point of view.

  • Is there anything people seem to overlook in the sources you research?
  • Are there any heated debates you can address?
  • Do you have a unique take on your topic?
  • Have there been some recent developments that build on the extant research?

In this stage, you might find it helpful to formulate some research questions to help guide you. To write research questions, try to finish the following sentence: “I want to know how/what/why…”

A thesis statement is a statement of your central argument — it establishes the purpose and position of your paper. If you started with a research question, the thesis statement should answer it. It should also show what evidence and reasoning you’ll use to support that answer.

The thesis statement should be concise, contentious, and coherent. That means it should briefly summarize your argument in a sentence or two, make a claim that requires further evidence or analysis, and make a coherent point that relates to every part of the paper.

You will probably revise and refine the thesis statement as you do more research, but it can serve as a guide throughout the writing process. Every paragraph should aim to support and develop this central claim.

A research paper outline is essentially a list of the key topics, arguments, and evidence you want to include, divided into sections with headings so that you know roughly what the paper will look like before you start writing.

A structure outline can help make the writing process much more efficient, so it’s worth dedicating some time to create one.

Your first draft won’t be perfect — you can polish later on. Your priorities at this stage are as follows:

  • Maintaining forward momentum — write now, perfect later.
  • Paying attention to clear organization and logical ordering of paragraphs and sentences, which will help when you come to the second draft.
  • Expressing your ideas as clearly as possible, so you know what you were trying to say when you come back to the text.

You do not need to start by writing the introduction. Begin where it feels most natural for you — some prefer to finish the most difficult sections first, while others choose to start with the easiest part. If you created an outline, use it as a map while you work.

Do not delete large sections of text. If you begin to dislike something you have written or find it doesn’t quite fit, move it to a different document, but don’t lose it completely — you never know if it might come in useful later.

Paragraph structure

Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of research papers. Each one should focus on a single claim or idea that helps to establish the overall argument or purpose of the paper.

Example paragraph

George Orwell’s 1946 essay “Politics and the English Language” has had an enduring impact on thought about the relationship between politics and language. This impact is particularly obvious in light of the various critical review articles that have recently referenced the essay. For example, consider Mark Falcoff’s 2009 article in The National Review Online, “The Perversion of Language; or, Orwell Revisited,” in which he analyzes several common words (“activist,” “civil-rights leader,” “diversity,” and more). Falcoff’s close analysis of the ambiguity built into political language intentionally mirrors Orwell’s own point-by-point analysis of the political language of his day. Even 63 years after its publication, Orwell’s essay is emulated by contemporary thinkers.

Citing sources

It’s also important to keep track of citations at this stage to avoid accidental plagiarism . Each time you use a source, make sure to take note of where the information came from.

You can use our free citation generators to automatically create citations and save your reference list as you go.

APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator

The research paper introduction should address three questions: What, why, and how? After finishing the introduction, the reader should know what the paper is about, why it is worth reading, and how you’ll build your arguments.

What? Be specific about the topic of the paper, introduce the background, and define key terms or concepts.

Why? This is the most important, but also the most difficult, part of the introduction. Try to provide brief answers to the following questions: What new material or insight are you offering? What important issues does your essay help define or answer?

How? To let the reader know what to expect from the rest of the paper, the introduction should include a “map” of what will be discussed, briefly presenting the key elements of the paper in chronological order.

The major struggle faced by most writers is how to organize the information presented in the paper, which is one reason an outline is so useful. However, remember that the outline is only a guide and, when writing, you can be flexible with the order in which the information and arguments are presented.

One way to stay on track is to use your thesis statement and topic sentences . Check:

  • topic sentences against the thesis statement;
  • topic sentences against each other, for similarities and logical ordering;
  • and each sentence against the topic sentence of that paragraph.

Be aware of paragraphs that seem to cover the same things. If two paragraphs discuss something similar, they must approach that topic in different ways. Aim to create smooth transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and sections.

The research paper conclusion is designed to help your reader out of the paper’s argument, giving them a sense of finality.

Trace the course of the paper, emphasizing how it all comes together to prove your thesis statement. Give the paper a sense of finality by making sure the reader understands how you’ve settled the issues raised in the introduction.

You might also discuss the more general consequences of the argument, outline what the paper offers to future students of the topic, and suggest any questions the paper’s argument raises but cannot or does not try to answer.

You should not :

  • Offer new arguments or essential information
  • Take up any more space than necessary
  • Begin with stock phrases that signal you are ending the paper (e.g. “In conclusion”)

There are four main considerations when it comes to the second draft.

  • Check how your vision of the paper lines up with the first draft and, more importantly, that your paper still answers the assignment.
  • Identify any assumptions that might require (more substantial) justification, keeping your reader’s perspective foremost in mind. Remove these points if you cannot substantiate them further.
  • Be open to rearranging your ideas. Check whether any sections feel out of place and whether your ideas could be better organized.
  • If you find that old ideas do not fit as well as you anticipated, you should cut them out or condense them. You might also find that new and well-suited ideas occurred to you during the writing of the first draft — now is the time to make them part of the paper.

The goal during the revision and proofreading process is to ensure you have completed all the necessary tasks and that the paper is as well-articulated as possible. You can speed up the proofreading process by using the AI proofreader .

Global concerns

  • Confirm that your paper completes every task specified in your assignment sheet.
  • Check for logical organization and flow of paragraphs.
  • Check paragraphs against the introduction and thesis statement.

Fine-grained details

Check the content of each paragraph, making sure that:

  • each sentence helps support the topic sentence.
  • no unnecessary or irrelevant information is present.
  • all technical terms your audience might not know are identified.

Next, think about sentence structure , grammatical errors, and formatting . Check that you have correctly used transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas. Look for typos, cut unnecessary words, and check for consistency in aspects such as heading formatting and spellings .

Finally, you need to make sure your paper is correctly formatted according to the rules of the citation style you are using. For example, you might need to include an MLA heading  or create an APA title page .

Scribbr’s professional editors can help with the revision process with our award-winning proofreading services.

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Checklist: Research paper

I have followed all instructions in the assignment sheet.

My introduction presents my topic in an engaging way and provides necessary background information.

My introduction presents a clear, focused research problem and/or thesis statement .

My paper is logically organized using paragraphs and (if relevant) section headings .

Each paragraph is clearly focused on one central idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence .

Each paragraph is relevant to my research problem or thesis statement.

I have used appropriate transitions  to clarify the connections between sections, paragraphs, and sentences.

My conclusion provides a concise answer to the research question or emphasizes how the thesis has been supported.

My conclusion shows how my research has contributed to knowledge or understanding of my topic.

My conclusion does not present any new points or information essential to my argument.

I have provided an in-text citation every time I refer to ideas or information from a source.

I have included a reference list at the end of my paper, consistently formatted according to a specific citation style .

I have thoroughly revised my paper and addressed any feedback from my professor or supervisor.

I have followed all formatting guidelines (page numbers, headers, spacing, etc.).

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CBSE Class 10 Hindi Paper Analysis 2024: Exam Review, Student Feedback and Expert View

CBSE Class 10 Hindi Paper Analysis 2024: Here, students can find the CBSE Class 10 Hindi paper analysis along with students’ feedback and question paper difficulty check.

Atul Rawal

CBSE Class 10 Board Exam 2024: The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) Higher Secondary Hindi exam is now over. Students have left the exam centres with the question paper in their hands. Today, on Wednesday, February 21, 2024, the CBSE Class 10 Hindi (Course A and Course B) exam was conducted. The exam started at 10:30 a.m. and was completed at 1:30 p.m. Thus, it took a total of three hours to finish the paper. 

Difference between CBSE Class 10 Hindi Course A and Course B

Cbse class 10 hindi question paper format 2024.

We will start our analysis by discussing the question paper format or design. This will give an idea of the number of questions and their distribution in the Class 10 Hindi paper, CBSE 2024. 

CBSE Class 10 Hindi Section-Wise Analysis

  • The questions in Section A were objective types, or MCQs. 
  • There were 10 comprehensive passages and poems that helped to find the answers.
  • Overall, the section was a bit twisted, but easy to understand.
  • This section comprises descriptive questions.
  • This section consumed a lot of time, so students had to rush in the end.
  • Overall, this section was moderate.

CBSE Class 10 Hindi Exam 2024 Difficulty Level: Student Reaction

Here we will analyse the difficulty level of the question paper based on the students' reactions after the exam's completion. The thing to highlight here is that only a few students were able to interact, so the verdict might vary with a higher percentage. 

CBSE Class 10 Hindi Exam 2024: Expert Opinion

  • CBSE Class 10 Syllabus for Board Exam 2024
  • CBSE Class 10 Practice Papers with Solutions 2024
  • CBSE Class 10 Sample Papers PDF 2024
  • CBSE Class 10 Deleted Syllabus 2024
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  • CBSE Class 10 Maths Mind Maps for All Chapters (Based on New Syllabus)
  • CBSE Class 10 Social Science Mind Maps for All Chapters (Based on New Syllabus)

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Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024, Class 12th Pattern & Answer Key_00.1

Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024, Class 12th Pattern & Answer Key

Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024 along with the answer key will be share on the page after conclusion of exam. Check the Maharashtra Board 12th English Answer Key 2024 here

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Table of Contents

The Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education has sucesfully conducted the Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024 on February 21, 2024. The Maharashtra Board 12th HSC English Paper 2024 is held on the morning shift from 11 a.m. to 2.10 p.m. After the exam, the Maharashtra Board 12th English Answer Key 2024 and Question Paper posted on this page.

Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024

The pattern of Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024 is the same as the model exam paper provided by the board. The Maharashtra Board 12th English Paper 2024 consists of 80 marks that must be finished by the students within 3 hours. The Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024 was broken into four portions. The first section, prose, carried 34 marks; the second portion, poetry, carried 14 marks; the third section, writing abilities, carried 16 marks; and the final section, literary genre, carried 16 marks.

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Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024: Overview

The Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper and Answer Key assist students in identifying correct and incorrect answers. Furthermore, students who will take the 12th test next year can refer to the Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024 to determine the level of difficulty.

Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024, Class 12th Pattern & Answer Key_30.1

English 12th Board Paper 2024 PDF

The Maharashtra Board conducts the 12th exam in an offline format. So, after the exam, students are given the Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper. Students may get the Maharashtra Board 12th English 2024 Solved Paper in PDF format here.

Download maharashtra-hsc-english-question-paper-2024 pdf

Maharashtra HSC English Board Paper Questions and Answers 2024

Q. 1. (A) Read the extract and complete the activities given below:. (12) (16] This is what Camus meant when he said that “what gives value to travel is fear”-disruption, in other words, (or emancipation) from circumstance, and all the habits behind which we hide. And that is why many of us travel not in search of answers, but of better questions. I, like many people, tend to ask questions of the places I visit, and relish most the ones that ask the most searching questions back of me: “The ideal travel book,” Christopher Isherwood once said, should be perhaps a little like a crime story in which you’re in search of something.” And it’s the best kind of something, I would add, if it’s one that you can never quite find. I remember, in fact, after my first trips to Southeast Asia, more than a decade ago, how I would come back to my apartment in New York, and lie in my bed, kept up by something more than jet lag, playing back, in my memory, over and over, all that I had experienced, and paging wistully through my photographs and reading ‘and re-reading my diaries, as if to extract some mystery from them. Anyone witnessing this strange scene would have drawn the right conclusion: I was in love. When we go abroad is that we are objects of scrutiny as much as the people we scrutinize, and we are being consumed by the cultures we consume, as much on the road as when we are at home. At the very least, we are objects of speculation (and even desire) who can seem as exotic to the people around us as they do to us. All, in that sense, believed in “being moved” as one of the points of taking trips, and “being transported” by private as well as public means; all saw that “ecstasy” “ex-stasis”) tells us that our highest moments come when we’re not stationary, and that epiphany can folow movement as much as it precipitates it.

Al. Read and rewrite the following sentences and state whether they are True or False :

(a) A traveller may sink in love with his travel memoirs. (b) One gets inspected as he inspects the world around him. (c) Quest for something may end in more mystery. (d) Staying in çómfort at home gives one more happiness than travelling.

A2. Match the persons given in column ‘A’with opinions/ characteristics given in column ‘B’: Column ‘A’ (1) Narrator (2) Camus (3) Isherwood (4) Traveller

Column B’ a) ideal travel should be like a crime story. b) in love with his memoirs. c) more happy when on move. d) fear gives value to travel

A3. Give reasons

“We are objects of scrutiny,” because ………………………

(i) ______________________

(ii) _____________________

(i) The culture abroad is different and we stand out with our different culture

(ii) We come exotic to the people around us when on a travel

A5. Do as directed: (i) I like to ask questions of the places I visit. (Choose the correct tense form of the above sentence from the following options and rewrite.) (a) Simple past tense (b) Simple present tense (c) Past perfect tense (d) Present perfect tense

(ü) I would come back to my apartment in New York. (Choose the correct option using ‘used to’ for the given sentence and rewrite.) (a) I use to come back to my apartment in New York. (b) I have used to come back to my apartment in New York. (c) I used to come back to my apartment in New York. (d) I had used to come back to my apartment in New York.

A6. Find out the words from passage which mean reminiscence (i) reminiscence

(ii) exhilaration

Maharashtra Board Class 12th English Answer Key 2024

The Maha Class 12 Exam concluded at 02:10 P.M. After the conclusion of the exam, Candidates are eagerly looking for the Maharashtra Board 12th English Answer Key 2024 on the Internet. We have published Maharashtra Board HSC English Answer Key 2024 for all sets, along with question paper analysis, for students’ convenience. Stay tuned with us.

Maharashtra HSC English Answer Key 2024 PDF

Maha Board 12th English Question Paper 2024 Analysis

In Class 12th English Paper Analysis 2024, we evaluate the question paper based on the number of errors, the number of questions that do not appear on the syllabus, and the difficulty level. Following the examination, the Maharashtra Board HSC English Exam Analysis 2024 is provided here, based on feedback from test takers and experts.

  • Today’s Maharashtra Board HSC English paper was rated as medium simple and high scoring.
  • All of the questions in the paper were from the prescribed syllabus.
  • Some students reported the paper was lengthy.

Maharashtra Board HSC English Paper 2024 Instructions

While taking the Maharashtra Board 12th English paper 2024, you must carefully read the general instructions as follows:

(1) Each activity has to be answered in complete sentence/s. One-word answers will not be given complete credit. Just the correct activity number written in case of options will not be given credit. (2) Web diagrams, flow charts, tables, etc. are to be presented exactly as they are with answers. (3) In point 2 above, just words without the presentation of the activity format/design, will not be given credit. Use of colored pencils/pens etc. is not allowed. (Only blue/black pens are allowed.) (4) Multiple answers to the same activity will be treated as wrong and will not be given any credit. (5) Maintain the sequence of the Sections/Question Nos./Activities throughout the activity sheet.

Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024, Class 12th Pattern & Answer Key_40.1

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How many sections in the Maharashtra Board 12th English Question Paper 2024?

The Maharashtra Board HSC English paper was broken into four portions. The first section, prose, carried 34 marks; the second portion, poetry, carried 14 marks; the third section, writing abilities, carried 16 marks; and the final section, literary genre, carried 16 marks.

Maharashtra 12th HSC Hindi Paper 2024

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CBSE Class 10 Hindi Paper Analysis 2024: Exam Review, Student Feedback and Expert View

i mg src="https://img.jagranjosh.com/images/2024/February/2122024/cbse-class-10-hindi-a-b-exam-2024.jpg" width="1200" height="675" />

CBSE Class 10 Board Exam 2024: The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) Higher Secondary Hindi exam is now over. Students have left the exam centres with the question paper in their hands. Today, on Wednesday, February 21, 2024, the CBSE Class 10 Hindi (Course A and Course B) exam was conducted. The exam started at 10:30 a.m. and was completed at 1:30 p.m. Thus, it took a total of three hours to finish the paper. 

The students who appeared for the CBSE Class 10 Hindi Course A exam received the question booklet of paper code 002. The question paper code was 085 for the students who gave the Hindi Course B exam. In this article, we will shed light on the difficulties faced by students during the exam and provide a complete analysis of the paper. This will help the students, teachers, and parents know how the paper went and what they should expect from the result. Continue reading for more information.

Difference between CBSE Class 10 Hindi Course A and Course B

For those who are confused between Hindi Course A and Hindi Course B offered by CBSE, below is a detailed analysis of both subjects. 

CBSE Class 10 Hindi Question Paper Format 2024

We will start our analysis by discussing the question paper format or design. This will give an idea of the number of questions and their distribution in the Class 10 Hindi paper, CBSE 2024. 

CBSE Class 10 Hindi A Question Paper Pattern 2024

CBSE Class 10 Hindi B Question Paper Pattern 2024

CBSE Class 10 Hindi Section-Wise Analysis

  • The questions in Section A were objective types, or MCQs. 
  • There were 10 comprehensive passages and poems that helped to find the answers.
  • Overall, the section was a bit twisted, but easy to understand.
  • This section comprises descriptive questions.
  • This section consumed a lot of time, so students had to rush in the end.
  • Overall, this section was moderate.

CBSE Class 10 Hindi Exam 2024 Difficulty Level: Student Reaction

Here we will analyse the difficulty level of the question paper based on the students' reactions after the exam's completion. The thing to highlight here is that only a few students were able to interact, so the verdict might vary with a higher percentage. 

As per students who appeared for the CBSE Class 10 Hindi Board exam 2024, the paper was fine, and they faced no difficulty related to question type and format. No questions were asked about deleted chapters or topics. The only challenge that they had to go through was the completion of the paper on time. Section B of the CBSE Hindi paper took a lot of time as students had to write descriptive answers. 

CBSE Class 10 Hindi Exam 2024: Expert Opinion

As per experts, “The CBSE Hindi Class 10 Hindi papers for Course A and Course B were easy and manageable within the given time frame. If students experienced that the paper was lengthy, then it might be because of a lack of writing practice. The comprehensive part was a bit tricky, but not difficult to solve. Students would not worry about how they performed in this exam. They should look forward and practice for the next exam in the raw.”

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IMAGES

  1. How to Write an Analysis Paper

    how to write the analysis section of a research paper

  2. 12.2 Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper

    how to write the analysis section of a research paper

  3. Research Paper Format

    how to write the analysis section of a research paper

  4. 😂 Literature review introduction paragraph example. How to Write the

    how to write the analysis section of a research paper

  5. How to Write an Analysis Paper

    how to write the analysis section of a research paper

  6. How To Write The Methodology Part Of A Research Paper ~ Alice Writing

    how to write the analysis section of a research paper

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  1. Research Paper Methodology

  2. Writing A Research Paper: Discussion

  3. Secret To Writing A Research Paper

  4. Research Article writing Workshop Part 2: Writing Introduction and Abstract

  5. Research Paper Introduction: How to write Introduction For A Research Paper?

  6. How to write a Research Paper

COMMENTS

  1. PDF Summary and Analysis of Scientific Research Articles

    Being able to summarize and analyze a research article is important not only for showing your professor that you have understood your assigned reading, but it also is the first step to learning how to write your own research papers and literature reviews. The summary section of your paper shows that you understood the basic facts of the research.

  2. How to Write the Analysis Section of My Research Paper

    Summarize your analysis in a paragraph or two. Write the transition for the conclusions section of your paper. Tip Use compare and contrast language. Indicate where there are similarities and differences in the data through the use of phrases like ''in contrast'' and ''similarly.''

  3. How to Write a Results Section

    Published on August 30, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on July 18, 2023. A results section is where you report the main findings of the data collection and analysis you conducted for your thesis or dissertation. You should report all relevant results concisely and objectively, in a logical order.

  4. How to Write an APA Methods Section

    How to Write an APA Methods Section | With Examples Published on February 5, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023. The methods section of an APA style paper is where you report in detail how you performed your study. Research papers in the social and natural sciences often follow APA style.

  5. Library Guides: Research Paper Writing: 6. Results / Analysis

    How should the analysis section be written? Should be a paragraph within the research paper Consider all the requirements (spacing, margins, and font) Should be the writer's own explanation of the chosen problem Thorough evaluation of work Description of the weak and strong points Discussion of the effect and impact

  6. How to Write a Discussion Section

    What not to include in your discussion section. Step 1: Summarize your key findings. Step 2: Give your interpretations. Step 3: Discuss the implications. Step 4: Acknowledge the limitations. Step 5: Share your recommendations. Discussion section example. Other interesting articles. Frequently asked questions about discussion sections.

  7. How to Write Discussions and Conclusions

    Begin with a clear statement of the principal findings. This will reinforce the main take-away for the reader and set up the rest of the discussion. Explain why the outcomes of your study are important to the reader. Discuss the implications of your findings realistically based on previous literature, highlighting both the strengths and ...

  8. Analysis

    Analysis research involves several steps: Finding and collecting documents. Specifying criteria or patterns that you are looking for. Analyzing documents for patterns, noting number of occurrences or other factors.

  9. How To Write an Analysis (With Examples and Tips)

    How to write an analysis Writing an analysis requires a particular structure and key components to create a compelling argument. The following steps can help you format and write your analysis: Choose your argument. Define your thesis. Write the introduction. Write the body paragraphs. Add a conclusion. 1. Choose your argument

  10. Research Paper

    Definition: Research Paper is a written document that presents the author's original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue. It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both.

  11. PDF How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper

    The methods section should describe what was done to answer the research question, describe how it was done, justify the experimental design, and explain how the results were analyzed. Scientific writing is direct and orderly.

  12. How To Write An Analysis Section Of An Academic Paper

    Academic Essays Before we get onto the analysis section, we must take a quick look at academic papers. Academic papers are unlike any other types of essays you may have come across during college. For science students, they come across as a particular shock since they do not have much essay writing experience during college.

  13. How to Write the Results/Findings Section in Research

    The best way to organize your Results section is "logically." One logical and clear method of organizing research results is to provide them alongside the research questions—within each research question, present the type of data that addresses that research question. Let's look at an example.

  14. How to write statistical analysis section in medical research

    Abstract. Reporting of statistical analysis is essential in any clinical and translational research study. However, medical research studies sometimes report statistical analysis that is either inappropriate or insufficient to attest to the accuracy and validity of findings and conclusions. Published works involving inaccurate statistical ...

  15. 07 Steps for writing Discussion Section of Research Paper

    To write an effective Discussion section, authors should focus on the relevance of their research, highlight the limitations, introduce new discoveries, highlight their observations, compare and relate their findings to other research works, provide alternate viewpoints, and show future directions. By following these 7 steps, authors can ensure ...

  16. Reporting Research Results in APA Style

    The results section of a quantitative research paper is where you summarize your data and report the findings of any relevant statistical analyses. The APA manual provides rigorous guidelines for what to report in quantitative research papers in the fields of psychology, education, and other social sciences.

  17. Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

    ANOTHER NOTE: If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem, the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the ...

  18. Structuring a qualitative findings section

    Structuring a qualitative findings section. Writing Research. Written By Andrea Bingham. Reporting the findings from a qualitative study in a way that is interesting, meaningful, and trustworthy can be a struggle. Those new to qualitative research often find themselves trying to quantify everything to make it seem more "rigorous," or asking ...

  19. How to write the results section of a research paper

    3 minute read 40.2K views Table of Contents Difference between results and discussion Structure of the results section Practical guidance for writing an effective results section for a research paper At its core, a research paper aims to fill a gap in the research on a given topic.

  20. How to write the Methods section of a research paper

    3. Follow the order of the results: To improve the readability and flow of your manuscript, match the order of specific methods to the order of the results that were achieved using those methods. 4. Use subheadings: Dividing the Methods section in terms of the experiments helps the reader to follow the section better.

  21. PDF Strategies for Essay Writing

    In a short paper—even a research paper—you don't need to provide an exhaustive summary as part of your conclusion. But you do need to make some kind of transition between your final body paragraph and your concluding paragraph. This may come in the form of a few sentences of summary. Or it may come in the form of a sentence that

  22. How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper

    The methods section must explicitly state what was done, how it was done, which equipment, tools and techniques were utilized, how were the measurements/calculations taken, and why specific research protocols, software, and analytical methods were employed. Why is the methods section important?

  23. [2402.12255] Shallow Synthesis of Knowledge in GPT-Generated Texts: A

    Numerous AI-assisted scholarly applications have been developed to aid different stages of the research process. We present an analysis of AI-assisted scholarly writing generated with ScholaCite, a tool we built that is designed for organizing literature and composing Related Work sections for academic papers. Our evaluation method focuses on the analysis of citation graphs to assess the ...

  24. How to Write a Research Paper

    A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, and argument based on in-depth independent research. Research papers are similar to academic essays, but they are usually longer and more detailed assignments, designed to assess not only your writing skills but also your skills in scholarly research.

  25. CBSE Class 10 Hindi Paper Analysis 2024: Exam Review, Student Feedback

    Students have left the exam centres with the question paper in their hands. Today, on Wednesday, February 21, 2024, the CBSE Class 10 Hindi (Course A and Course B) exam was conducted. The exam ...

  26. Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024, Class 12th ...

    The Maharashtra Board HSC English Question Paper 2024 was broken into four portions. The first section, prose, carried 34 marks; the second portion, poetry, carried 14 marks; the third section, writing abilities, carried 16 marks; and the final section, literary genre, carried 16 marks. Get Free Class 12 Commerce Study Materials

  27. CBSE Class 10 Hindi Paper Analysis 2024: Exam Review, Student ...

    Students have left the exam centres with the question paper in their hands. Today, on Wednesday, February 21, 2024, the CBSE Class 10 Hindi (Course A and Course B) exam was conducted. The exam ...